Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations Charles F. W. Higham Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations Copyright © 2004 by Charles F. W. Higham All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations / Charles F.W.Higham. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-4640-9 1. Asia—Civilization—Encyclopedias. I. Title. DS12.H5 2003 959’.1’03—dc212003048513 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Maps by Jeremy Eagle Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. C ONTENTS List of Illustrations and Maps vi Introduction xvii Entries A to Z 1 Chronology 417 Bibliography 420 Index 426 L I IST OF LLUSTRATIONS M AND APS Photographs & Illustrations Statue of Agni, India 3 Fresco painting on the walls of the Ajanta caves, India 5 Amaravati, India 8 Ananda Temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 11 Sculptured heads of the Bayon temple at Angkor,Cambodia 17 Angkor Wat, Cambodia 19 Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka 21 Sandstone figures of apsaras,Angkor Wat, Cambodia 24 Banteay Chmar, Cambodia 39 “Citadel of the women,” miniaturetemple of Banteay Srei, Cambodia 40 Reliefs carved on the walls of the Bayon temple at Angkor, Cambodia 46 Medieval temple at Bodh Gaya, India 54 Bodhisattva from Japan’s Heian period 54 Chariots, bronze model from Gansu in China, Eastern Han dynasty 71 Royal centers at Banteay Prei Nokor, Chenla period, Cambodia 75 Stairway of the Tripylon with bas-reliefs 90 Stone dharmacakra from Phra Phatom, Thailand 92 Statue of Siva, Elephanta, India 105 Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, India 106 Haniwa tomb figure, Japan 134 Wall painting of Indra, India 148 Bust of Jayavarman VII, Cambodia 169 Kharoshthi script from Hotan 182 Mud brick walls of Kot Diji, Pakistan 186 vi List of Illustrations and Maps vii Lacquered basket found in the Han tomb in the Chinese commandery of Lelang in northern Korea 193 Flying horse, bronze figure from the Eastern Han dynasty, China 196 Jade suit of Princess Dou Wan, Han dynasty, China 202 Mencius, in an 18th-century portrait, China 221 Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan 226 Mount Meru, represented at Ta Keo, Cambodia 231 Nisa, southern Turkmenistan 242 An oracle bone from Shang China 248 Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 256 Sanctuary of Phimai, ancient Vimayapura, Thailand 261 Phnom Rung, Thailand 262 Pre Rup temple, Angkor, Cambodia 267 Terra-cotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuangdi, China 274 Scene from the Ramayana,Thailand 280 Four gateways of the stupa at Sanchi, India 293 Steatite seals, Indus civilization, Pakistan 300 Prince Shotoku, Japan 317 Shrine at Sokkuram, Korea 329 Sulamani temple at Pagan, Myanmar (Burma) 333 Ritual vessel, China 338 Frieze at Taxila, India, showing the Buddha and devotees 344 Terrace of the leper king, Angkor Thom, Cambodia 347 Great Wall of China 367 Wine vessel, from the Western Zhou dynasty, China 374 Bronze wine jug (jue),China 386 Yakushi-ji, a Buddhist temple at Heijo-kyo in Japan 394 Yayoi period bronze bell, Japan 404 Maps Sites in Central Asia ix Sites in the Indian Subcontinent x Sites in East and Southeast Asia xii Sites in Japan and Korea xiv Sites in the Southeast Asian Islands xv Lipetsk Kursk Voronezh Saratov Khar’kov Orenburg Central Asia Sevastopol’ Aral(cid:13) Sea Syr Alma-Ata Dar’ya Black(cid:13) R. Sea CAUCASUS Caspian(cid:13) CCCHHHOOORRRAAASSSMMMIIIAAA FERGANA Toprak-kala Sea Ayaz-kala Maracanda(cid:13) Kashi V V LLaaaannkkee(cid:13) AArraakksseess RR.. Amu (Samarqand) CCCyyyrrrooopppooollliiisss GGGaaauuugggaaammmeeelllaaa Dar’ SOGDIANA y PPPAAARRRTTTHHHIIIAAA a LLaakkee(cid:13) R. ZZZaaarrr---ttteeepppeee Ti UUrrmmiiaa gris Merv AAAiiirrrtttaaammm TTTeeerrrmmmeeezzz HHH R. M UUU SSS HHHYYYRRRCCCAAANNNIIIAAA urgh DDD UUU KKK a NNN b HHHIII Srinagar MMAARRGGIIAANNAA R. E u p hr at KKKAAAPPPIIISSSAAA e s R . Lahore R. AAARRRIIIAAA d QQQaaannndddaaahhhaaarrr n a m GGAANNDDHHAARRAA Hel PPPeeerrrssseeepppooollliiisss CCAARRMMAANNIIAA AARRAACCHHOOSSIIAA DDRRAANNGGIIAANNAA Elevation in feet R. Jaipur P us over 10,000(cid:13) ersi Ind a n G 5,000–10,000(cid:13) ulf 2,000–5,000(cid:13) 1,000–2,000(cid:13) N 500–1,000(cid:13) 0 300 Miles Ahmadabad Indore Arabian Sea 0 300 Km (cid:13) ix