Encyclopedia of african-American politics Robert C. Smith http://avaxhome.ws/blogs/ChrisRedfield For Lovanya Dejean (1943–2001) Encyclopedia of African-American Politics Copyright © 2003 by Robert C. Smith All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith, Robert C., 1947– Encyclopedia of African American politics / Robert C. Smith. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-4475-9 (alk. paper) 1. African Americans—Politics and government—Encyclopedias. 2. African Americans—History—Encyclopedias. I. Title. E185 .S58155 2003 973’.0496073’003—dc21 2002075473 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Illustrations by Sholto Ainslie Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents (cid:2) LIST OF ENTRIES v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix INTRODUCTION xi ENTRIES A TO Z 1 DOCUMENTARY SOURCES IN THE STUDY OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN POLITICS 395 BIBLIOGRAPHY 397 INDEX 409 List of Entries (cid:2) abolitionist movement “Ballot or the Bullet” speech Bruce, Blanche K. color stratification accommodationism Bandung Conference Bunche, Ralph commerce clause, U.S. Adams, John Quincy Baraka, Imamu Amiri bureaucracy Constitution Adarand Constructors Inc. Bethune, Mary McLeod busing communism v. Pena bigotry (see racism) capitalism Communist Party affirmative action Bill of Rights Carmichael, Stokely community control African American Birmingham Carter, Jimmy Compromise of 1877 African-American politics, demonstrations Census, U.S. Congress defined Birth of a Nation, The Chisholm, Shirley Congressional Black African-American studies black citizen diplomacy Caucus African-American thought black agendas citizenship Congress of Racial Equality African Blood Black Arts movement City of Richmond v. J. A. (CORE) Brotherhood Black Cabinet Croson(see Croson, J. Connerly, Ward Afrocentricity black church A., City of Richmond v.) conservatism AIDS-HIV Black Codes civic culture conservative coalition Ali, Muhammad black community civil disobedience Constitution, U.S. alienation Black Muslims (see Nation civil liberties constitutionalism Allen, Richard of Islam) civil rights convention movement American Colonialization black nationalism Civil Rights Act of 1964 Cook, Samuel DuBois Society blackness civil rights cases of 1883 co-optation American Dilemma, An Black Panther Party Civil Rights Commission, CORE (see Congress of American Muslim Mission Black Power movement U.S. Racial Equality) apartheid Black Power: The Politics of Civil Rights Division, Council on African Aptheker, Herbert Liberation in America Department of Justice Affairs Asante, Molefi K. Black Radical Congress Civil Rights movement criminal justice system assimilation Blair Education bill Civil War Croson, J. A., v. City of “Atlanta Compromise” Blyden, Edward Wilmot Clark, Kenneth Richmond address Brennan, William J. class stratification Crummell, Alexander Atlanta University Brooke, Edward Clinton, Bill Cruse, Harold back-to-Africa movements Brotherhood of Sleeping Coalition of Black Trade cultural nationalism Baker, Ella Jo Car Porters Unionists culture Baker v. Carr Brown, John coalitions culture of poverty Bakke v. Regents of the Brown, Ronald H. COINTELPRO Cummings v. Board of University of California Brown v. Board of cold war Education balance of power Education of Topeka, Colfax massacre Davis, Angela Baldwin, James Kansas colonialism Dawson, William L. v vi List of Entries Declaration of Freedom Rides individual racism media Independence free Negroes institutional racism melting pot Delany, Martin R. fugitive slave clause, U.S. integration Meredith, James Dellums, Ronald Constitution interest groups Meredith march democracy full employment internal colonialism militancy Democracy in America Full Employment and internal inferiorization military Democratic Party Balanced Growth Act of Jackson, Jesse Milliken v. Bradley deracialization 1978 Jefferson, Thomas Million Man march desegregation Fullilove v. Klutznick Jim Crow minority group Diggs, Charles gag rule Johnson, Andrew Mississippi Freedom discrimination Garnett, Henry Highland Johnson, James Weldon Democratic Party disparate impact Garrison, William Lloyd Johnson, Lyndon B. Mitchell, Clarence disparate treatment Garvey, Marcus M. Joint Center for Political Montgomery, Isaiah T. District of Columbia gay rights movement and Economic Studies Montgomery bus boycott Douglass, Frederick Gettysburg Address Jones, Mack H. Moseley-Braun, Carol Dred Scott v. Sanford ghetto Jones, Raymond J. Moses, Robert drugs, war on (see criminal globalization Jordan, Vernon Muhammad, Elijah justice system) Goldwater, Barry judicial process multiculturalism Du Bois, W. E. B. Grant, Ulysses S. Justice Department, U.S. music due process clauses, U.S. Gray, William H. Karenga, Ron Myrdal, Gunnar Constitution Great Migration Kennedy, Edward M. NAACP (National Dyer antilynching bill Great Society Kennedy, John F. Association for the elected officials Griggs v. Duke Power Co. Kerner Report Advancement of Colored electoral college Haiti Keyes, Alan People) Elementary and Secondary Hamer, Fannie Lou Keyes v. School District No. names controversy Education Act Hamilton, Charles V. 1, Denver, Colo. National Association of Emancipation Proclamation Hare, Nathan King, Martin Luther, Jr. Colored Women’s Clubs Equal Employment Harlem King, Rodney National Baptist Opportunity Commission Harlem Renaissance Ku Klux Klan Convention equality Harris, Patricia Roberts Kwanza National Black Election equal protection clause, Harrison, Benjamin Langston, John Mercer Study U.S. Constitution Hatcher, Richard leadership National Black Leadership ethnicity (ethnic group) Hawkins, Augustus Leadership Conference on Roundtable Evers, Medgar Hayes, Rutherford B. Civil Rights National Black Political executive orders Heart of Atlanta Motel v. Legal Defense Fund Convention Fanon, Frantz United States Lewis, John National Conference of Farmer, James Height, Dorothy liberalism Black Political Scientists Farrakhan, Louis Highlander Folk School Liberia National Council of Negro FBI (Federal Bureau of historically black colleges Lincoln, Abraham Women Investigation) and universities litigation National Negro Congress federalism Holden, Matthew, Jr. lobbying National Negro Convention feminism Hoover, Edgar J. lynching National Political Congress Fifteenth Amendment, Housing and Urban Malcolm X of Black Women U.S. Constitution Development (HUD), Marable, Manning National Urban League filibuster U.S. Department of March on Washington (see Urban League) Fletcher, Arthur, Jr. Houston, Charles H. movement National Welfare Rights foreign policy Howard University March on Washington of Organization forty acres and a mule human rights 1963 Nation of Islam Fourteenth Amendment, Humphrey, Hubert Marshall, Thurgood natural rights U.S. Constitution Humphrey-Hawkins Act Martin, Louis negritude Franklin, John Hope ideology marxism Negro national anthem Freedmen’s Bureau “I Have A Dream” speech Mayfield, Curtis New Deal freedom individualism McCarthyism Newton, Huey List of Entries vii Niagara movement Radical Republicans social movements Twenty-third Amendment, Nixon, Richard Rainbow Coalition Souls of Black Folk, The U.S. Constitution Northern states Randolph, A. Philip Southern Christian two-party system Obadele, Imari A. rap music (hip-hop) Leadership Conference Uncle Tom Office of Federal Contract Reagan, Ronald (SCLC) Uncle Tom’s Cabin Compliance reapportionment (see Southern states underclass Operation PUSH Baker v. Carr) Southern strategy United Nations oppression Reconstruction Sowell, Thomas Universal Declaration of organization religiosity Spingarn, Joel E. Human Rights Organization of Afro- reparations state and local Universal Negro American Unity representation government Improvement Pan-Africanism Republican Party Stewart, Maria W. Association Parks, Rosa Republic of New Africa Stevens, Thaddeus Urban League urban politics Philadelphia Plan Revels, Hiram, R. Stokes, Carl Vietnam War Pierce, Samuel riots “Strange Fruit” violence Piven, Frances Fox Robeson, Paul Student Nonviolent voting behavior Plessy v. Ferguson Robinson, Randall Coordinating Committee voting rights pluralism Roosevelt, Franklin D. (SNCC) Voting Rights Act of 1965 plural society Rowan, Carl subordinate group Walker, David political culture Rustin, Bayard Sullivan, Leon H. Wallace, George political incorporation Schomburg Center for Sumner, Charles Walters, Ronald political participation Research in Black superordinate group Walton, Hanes, Jr. political parties Culture Supreme Court Wards Cove v. Atonio political repression schools and education Swann v. Charlotte- War on Poverty political socialization SCLC (see Southern Mecklenburg Board of Warren, Earl political system Christian Leadership Education Washington, Booker T. Poor Peoples campaign Conference) Talented Tenth Watts, J. C. population Seale, Bobby Terrell, Mary Church Watts riot populist movements segregation think tanks Weaver, Robert C. post–civil rights era self-help third parties welfare state poverty Selma demonstrations Third World Wells-Barnett, Ida B. Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr. separate but equal Thirteenth Amendment, “We Shall Overcome” Powell, Colin separation of powers U.S. Constitution West Indians power sexism Thomas, Clarence White, George power elite Sharpton, Al three-fifths clause, U.S. White, Walter presidency Shaw v. Reno Constitution white backlash presidential campaigns sit-ins TransAfrica white flight Prestage, Jewel L. slaughterhouse cases Trotter, William Monroe whiteness Proposition 209 slave revolts Truman, Harry S. white primary protest slavery Truth, Sojourner white supremacy public intellectuals slavery in Western thought Tubman, Harriet Wilder, Douglas L. public opinion SNCC (see Student Turner, Henry M. Wilkins, Roy public policy Nonviolent Coordinating Turner, Nat Wilson, William J. quotas Committee) Tuskegee Institute Wilson, Woodrow race social-contract theory Twenty-fourth Woodson, Carter G. racism socialism Amendment, U.S. Young, Andrew radicalism Socialist Party Constitution Young, Whitney Acknowledgments (cid:2) This work was prepared with the assistance of my wife, Scottie Smith. It is ded- icated to the memory of her friend and colleague, Lavonya Dejean. Lavonya was an advocate and activist for the education of disadvantaged children. She coor- dinated a movement of parents in the West Contra Costa, California, Unified School District to develop comprehensive policies and procedures for parental involvement in education. Through her leadership, diverse groups of teachers, parents, and students were taught the necessity of understanding each others’ cultures and the need for equity and equality in the education of all children. I should like to thank Owen Lancer for conceiving of the project, for invit- ing me to undertake it, and for his assistance and the assistance of the staff of Facts On File for guiding it to completion. ix