Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation 7 Bilyana Martinovsky Editor Emotion in Group Decision and Negotiation Emotion in Group Decision and Negotiation Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation Volume 7 Series Editor Melvin F. Shakun, New York University, U.S.A. Editorial Board Tung Bui, University of Hawaii, U.S.A. Guy Olivier Faure, University of Paris V, Sorbonne, France Gregory Kersten, University of Ottawa and Concordia University, Canada D. Marc Kilgour, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada Peyman Faratin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, U.S.A. The book series, Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation—as an extension of the journal, Group Decision and Negotiation—is motivated by unifying approaches to group decision and negotiation processes. These processes are purposeful, adaptive, and complex—cybernetic and self-organizing—and involve relation and coordination in multiplayer, multicriteria, ill-structured, evolving dynamic problems in which players (agents) both cooperate and conflict. These processes are purposeful complex adaptive systems. Group decision and negotiation involves the whole process or flow of activities relevant to group decision and negotiation—such as communication and informa- tion sharing, problem definition (representation) and evolution, alternative gener- ation, social–emotional interaction, coordination, leadership, and the resulting action choice. Areas of application include intra-organizational coordination (as in local/global strategy, operations management and integrated design, production, finance, marketing, and distribution—e.g., as for new products), computer-supported collaborativework,labor-managementnegotiation,inter-organizationalnegotiation (business, government, and nonprofits), electronic negotiation and commerce, mobiletechnology,cultureandnegotiation,inter-culturalandinternationalrelations and negotiation, globalization, terrorism, and environmental negotiation. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5587 Bilyana Martinovsky Editor Emotion in Group Decision and Negotiation 123 Editor BilyanaMartinovsky Stockholm University Stockholm Sweden ISSN 1871-935X Advances in GroupDecision andNegotiation ISBN978-94-017-9962-1 ISBN978-94-017-9963-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9963-8 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015941132 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon ©SpringerNetherlands2015 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors, and the editorsare safeto assume that the adviceand informationin this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinor foranyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.DordrechtispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia (www.springer.com) Acknowledgments I express my gratitude to all authors, reviewers, Stefan Einarson SPRINGER, the Swedish foundation FORTE, and College of Europe for supporting this research project and this publication. Bilyana Martinovsky v Contents 1 Emotions in Interaction: Toward a Supraindividual Study of Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Leonardo Christov-Moore and Marco Iacoboni 2 With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Mara Olekalns and Daniel Druckman 3 The Cognitive–Affective Structure of Political Ideologies . . . . . . . . 51 Paul Thagard 4 Reputation and Egotiation: The Impact of Self-Image on the Negotiator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Paul Meerts and Siniša Vuković 5 Emotions in e-Negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Michele Griessmair, Patrick Hippmann and Johannes Gettinger 6 Discourse Analysis of Emotion in Face-to-Face Group Decision and Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Bilyana Martinovsky 7 Game Theory and Emotions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Steven J. Brams vii Introduction The academic discipline of Group Decision and Negotiation is dedicated to the understanding,thestudy,andthedevelopmentofdecisiontakingandnegotiationas groupactivities.Differenttypesofactivitiesareregulatedbyspecificrules,involving different forms of risk evaluation, means for communication, contexts, and stress conditions. Decision taking and negotiation are promoted and studied as rational cognitiveandcommunicativeprocesses,ledbyDescartes’motto“Cogitoergosum.” Mathematical models, bargain theories, and decision taking systems are the results andtherationalmeansbywhichthefieldisdeveloped.Rationalmeasuresaretaken to estimate the effects of multiple criteria and different forms of utilities. In this context,itishardtoseetheroleofemotioninsuchsystemsandtheories,unlessitis describedintermsofrationalreasoning.Sinceformalapproachestogroupdecision takingandnegotiationdefinedemotionassubjectiveandnonrationalphenomenon, whichishardtorationalize,predict,orgiveutilitiesto,theyhaveindeedpreferredto eliminate it from their analysis, models, and systems. Yet, empiria show that emo- tionsplayanimportantroleingroupdecisiontakingandnegotiationactivitieseven if they are defined by rigid rules. Since Damasio challenged Descartes with a new view summarized by the motto “Sentio ergo sum,” research on emotion started gaining momentum, within neuroscience and cognitive science but also within research on decision taking. In a group context, however, emotion is not anymore onlyasubjectiveexperience,itbecomesaninter-subjectiveexperienceandafactor influencinggroupdecisiontakingandnegotiation(GDN).Realizingthatweneedto explore number of questions such as: How do emotions become inter-subjective? What are the neural conditions and function of emotion in GDN? What are the communicative means for the realization of emotion in GDN? How do emotions influence GDN? How is emotion related to ideology expressed in GDN? What methodscouldbeusedforthestudy ofemotion inGDN?Inorder toanswer these questions, this volume examines the nature, realization, effect, and role emotions play in GDN from number of different perspectives such as neuroscience, psy- chology, linguistics, pragmatics, informatics, sociology, philosophy, and game theory.Eachresearch disciplinehasownview,studymethods,andfindingsonthe matter. Due to the nature of our subject of study, neuroscience and sociology, for ix x Introduction example,areincreasinglyintertwined,creatingaspaceforinterdisciplinaryenquiry. The same applies also toinformatics, sociology, and linguistics. The volume aims to give the reader a broad view of the state-of-art research on thetopicofemotioningroupdecisionandnegotiation.Twelveresearchersfromthe USA, Canada, Europe, and Australia contribute to it. We conducted our research independently of each other, yet our chapters show some interesting similarities in focus, findings,and conclusions.In Chap.1, Iacoboni and Moore explore emotion in GDN from a neuroscience point of view and find that emotional convergence, contagion,andmimicryinagrouparesupportedbyaneuralresonance,whichleads toemergenceofgroupstates. Thefactthatcooperativegroupstates donotemerge when the groups consist of people with neurological disorders, which affect capacity for empathy, indicates the importance of brain connectedness for the establishment of emotive–cognitive group connectedness. Similarly, Thagard’s study (Chap. 3) in political science acknowledges that ideologies influence group conflicts and group discourses and traces the effect of emotion on ideology. It finds that emotional coherence leads to ideologies and disrupts cognitive processes such as inferences. In that sense, person–group prob- lems can be resolved if emotional contagion is understood. Olekalns and Druckman’s Chap. 2 is organized in terms offour themes: moves andexchanges,informationprocessing,socialinteraction,andthecontextsinwhich negotiation occurs. It also connects findings in social aspects of emotion in GDN with results from neuroscience, which suggest that emotion and cognition are deeplyintertwinedprocesses,whichcanhardlybeseparated.Aninterestinginsight, derived inpart from neuroimaging research, is that “intentional tactics, which may include evading and deceiving, combine elements of thought and feeling in an integrative rather than sequential, competing or additive fashion.” However, they report that social and situational context affects emotion in GDN, i.e., the same emotion elicited in different context elicits different brain states. Yet, “emotional inconsistencyelicitsgreaterconcessionsthanemotionalconsistency.”Withrespect to theeffect of strategy on emotionin GDN, their chapter suggeststhat expression of emotion, which is perceived as strategic, reduces trust, whereas authentic emotion elicits lower demands from opponent. InChap.4,MeertsandVucovicanalyzeGDNasapsychologicalprocesswhere cognitionandemotionareinseparablyconnectedbyTheory-of-Mind-basedmodels of self and other. In that sense, stereotyped perceptions of own or other’s identity (e.g., national identity), including expected cognitive and emotional attachments and judgments, precede and affect any form of interaction. Negotiations are par- ticularlysensitivetothisaspectofcommunicationbecausetheydonotneedtoend up with a particular decision or agreement. The authors’ observations of interna- tional diplomacy negotiations lead them to the conclusion that they are best describedasprocesseswhereparties strivetosatisfyandenhance the“face”ofthe negotiator rather than reach particular transactive goals. The channel of communication, however, has a strong effect on emotion in GDN. The authors of Chap. 5, Griessmair, Hippmann and Gettinger, discuss the impact of emotions in electronic GDN environments. Connectedness of cognitive, Introduction xi emotive, and social processes is found even in electronic-supported decision and negotiation. Yet, rapport building is more difficult through asynchronous than synchronous e-negotiations, the later being characterized as more affective, disin- hibited, and competitive than the former. The advantage of e-negotiation/decision systems, which allow more time between interactions, is that they support inte- gration of emotion, inference ability, and goal-oriented behavior. The authors propose a model integrating inter- and intra-personal effects of emotions and how they are influenced by electronically mediated communication and the decision support component of electronic negotiation systems. The interplay between inter- and intra-personal effects is illustrated through the concept of fairness: Unfair concessions offered with positive emotion result in cognitive dissonance, which challenges the possibility for agreement or future cooperation. Chapter 6 focuses on face-to-face interaction analysis of group decision and negotiation, which explores the discursive realization of variety of emotions occurring naturally in authentic discourse activities. Based on empirical studies, it formulates a model for analysis of emotion in GDN, which allows for both mimicry-based and appraisal-based emotion processes and supports both authentic andstrategicrealizationsofemotioninGDN.Inthismodel,reciprocaladaptationis an influential interactional process supported by neural resonance. Steven Brams’ chapter shows how Theory of Moves explains the choices that players make to extricate themselves from frustrating conflicts. Theory of Moves modifiestherulesofplayinstandardgametheorytomodelhowfarsightedplayersthink aheadabouttheconsequencesoftheirmovesandcountermoves.Players’frustration triggersanger thatleads themtothreatenanadversary,and sometimes carry out the threatorotherwiseinduceacrisis,thatultimatelybenefitsthem.HeillustratesTheoryof Moves with examples from Aristophanes’s Lysistrata and Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Brams’approachdiffersinhisviewofinter-subjectivityfromtheotherchaptersinthis volumeasitassumesthatplayershavecompleteinformationabouttheotherplayer’s preferencesaswellastheirownbuthowwellorbadlyoneplayerfeelsateachoutcome orstatedoesnotaffecthowwellorbadlyanotherplayerfeels,becausepreferencesare assumedgivenanddonotordinarilychange. All chapters define a need offuture study of diversity of emotions as the liter- ature has privileged emotions such as anger, fear, joy, and empathy, but has less insight into emotional states such as shame, surprise, remorse, despair, and cer- tainty.Yet,allauthorsfindthatemotionalresonanceinGDNcontextshasthemost powerful impact on the activity and its outcome. The validity and potency of this and other insights in this volume can be easily illustrated by the unprecedentedly massive and quick, spontaneous and strongly emotional public reaction in France andelsewheretotheviolentattacksofandrelatedtotheFrenchnewspaper“Charlie Hebdo,” which is still going on as I finish this introduction. In this context, it is importanttoemphasizethatthemaingoalofthisbookisnotonlytheunderstanding ofGDNprocessesbutalsothepromotionofGDNaspeacefulandethicalmeansfor problem formulation and problem solution. Bilyana Martinovsky