EMOTION AROUSING MESSAGE FORMS AND PERSONAL AGENCY ARGUMENTS IN PERSUASIVE MESSAGES: MOTIVATING EFFECTS ON PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIORS DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Bethany Simunich, MBA, MPIA ***** The Ohio State University 2008 Dissertation Committee: Associate Professor Susan L. Kline, Advisor Associate Professor Prabu David Associate Professor Gerald Kosicki Approved by ______________________________ Advisor Graduate Program in Communication ABSTRACT This study was designed to examine the role of emotion in persuasive messages. Fear appeals aside, the persuasive factor of emotion in argument is rarely studied with respect to how best to design persuasive messages to (1) arouse a specific motion, and (2) utilize the emotional arousal to increase motivation toward a targeted behavior. Because it has been theorized (Ford, 1992) that motivating effects of emotion on behavior change can be further enhanced by personal agency arguments (arguments that enhance personal capability and context beliefs), this study also examined the role of personal agency arguments in increasing behavioral intention. For this study, twelve persuasive messages were designed. Messages were written across two topics (recycling and compact fluourescent bulb), and were manipulated to contain emotion (hope, guilt or no emotion), personal agency arguments (present or not) or a combination of emotion (hope or guilt) and personal agency. All messages were designed to be consistently strong (i.e., contain a high-quality, persuasive argument), and to be consistent regarding other factors, such as message length, in order to isolate the effects of the manipulations. This study was conducted with 225 participants, located through convenience sampling as students in social science classes at a large, Midwestern university. Students were asked demographic and pre-attitudinal questions, then read one of 12 persuasive ii messages designed toward pro-environmental behavioral intentions. Participants then completed an online questionnaire asking them about emotions they felt after reading the essay, attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the topic and questions of perceived message effectiveness. Overall, the manipulations were shown to be effective and, for those who received messages on the topic of recycling, the manipulations were shown to increase (1) general perceived ratings of message effectives, (2) attitude towards the topic, and (3) promote behavioral intention toward pro-environmental behavior. Further, for those in the recycling group, those with the highest pre-message attitude toward the behavior were found to have the highest post-message means regarding perceived message effectiveness, attitude toward the behavior and behavioral intention. Finally, for those who read messages on the topic of recycling, the effects of the manipulations were found to be significant in regard to behavioral intention above and beyond the contribution of the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior (i.e., attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control). These findings were inconsistent with the results of the analyses in regard to the CFL group. It can be theorized that the differences between the two groups was reflective of the fact that those in the recycling group had much higher levels of pre-message knowledge, attitude and personal relevance regarding the topic. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Completing a dissertation, and earning a PhD, is a journey… and I did not make it here by myself. There were so many supportive and/or knowledgeable individuals that guided me along my path that I am indebted to many for reaching this milestone. I would like to thank my dissertation committee members, including Dr. Prabu David and Dr. Gerald Kosicki, who patiently put up with my struggle as I finished my dissertation, and who both provided valuable input to make this project both meaningful and successful. I would not even be at the point where I could acknowledge those who have helped me complete this dissertation, however, without my advisor, Dr. Susan L. Kline. She gave her unfailing support throughout this process, putting up with all my expressions of distress, as well as sharing in the many lightbulb moments of joy. Even when I had lost hope that this project would near completion, Susan was my light of intellectual curiosity and belief in one’s self. Her knowledge of the field and sheer intellectual prowess is something to which I aspire. The attention, time and energy she devoted to me and this project was immense, and without her guidance my “scholarly growth spurt” would not have been as great. I would like to thank my many friends who have put up with several years of minimal communication, minimal social engagements and endless stories of dissertation distress. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Rob Griffiths, for his cherished friendship, support and advice, as well as Robyn Ness, for her extreme kindness, iv understanding and invaluable suggestions. I would like to thank those who were both my friends and my fellow graduate students, including Dr. Bell O’Neil, Dr. Cat McGrew, and Josselyn Crane. Without the unique combination of both their friendship and their understanding of the process, there were times when this would have been a lonely road. For all of my friends outside of academia, including Elizabeth Finkelstein, Erica High and Diane Drotleff, thank you for sincerely being there for me, and for all your caring actions. For holding my hand and my heart through this entire dissertation process, despite not fully understanding why I was on this journey or why the goal was so important, I would like to deeply thank my fiancé, Doug Turlo. If anyone has seen me through this beautiful struggle on a day-to-day basis, it has been him. He has experienced every high and every low with me as I tried to make my dream a reality. I could not have asked for a better or more loving companion in my journey. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Thomas and Paulett Simunich, as well as my brother, Tom. Both individually and collectively, my family has helped support me in my goals and accomplishments. I would like to thank my father for instilling in me the drive for higher education and for supporting me as only a father can through these many years of schooling. I would like to thank my mother who always made education a cornerstone of our family values, and who has been both my biggest source of emotional support and my biggest fan. Her own desires for my success and happiness have been so strong that when my own faith failed, she held enough for us both. I would also like to thank my brother, who is both my best friend and my intellectual equal, as well as the best brother a sister could ever have. v VITA 2000 …………………………………………………………………B.A. Communication University of Pittsburgh 2003 ………………………………………M.B.A., Master’s of Business Administration University of Pittsburgh 2003 …………………………...…M.P.I.A., Master’s of Public and International Affairs University of Pittsburgh 2001 - 2003 …………………………………………..……...Graduate Research Assistant University of Pittsburgh 2003 - 2008 …………………………………………..………Graduate Student Associate The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS 1. Simunich, B. (2007). In the Fall of 2002, the ANP had shown a better way to deal with Iraq. The Journal of Mathematical and Computer Modeling, 46 (7 -8), 1130-1143. 2. Kline, S., Simunich, B., Weber, H. (2008). Understanding the effects of non- straightforward communication in organizational discourse: The case of equivocal messages, multiple goals and corporate reputation. Communication Research, 35, 770 – 791. 3. Kline, S., Simunich, B., Weber, H. (in press). Communication professionals’ use of equivocal communication in responding to corporate challenges: Multiple goal management, situational appropriateness and effects on corporate reputation. The Journal of Applied Communication Research. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Communication vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................II ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................................... IV VITA............................................................................................................................................................. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................VII LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. VIII CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................10 OVERVIEW OF EMOTION AND PERSUASION.............................................................................................10 SELECTED APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN......................................28 EMOTION AND PERSUASION.....................................................................................................................28 ISSUES AND GAPS IN EMOTION AND PERSUASION RESEARCH...............................................................55 MESSAGE DESIGN AND EMOTION ............................................................................................................60 RATIONALE AND HYPOTHESES.................................................................................................................75 CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................................96 PARTICIPANTS AND RECRUITING .............................................................................................................96 MESSAGE DESIGN – PRE-TESTING..........................................................................................................97 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND GENERAL STUDY PROCEDURES...............................................................99 CHAPTER 4 ..............................................................................................................................................108 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE.......................................................................................................108 PRE-TEST MEASURES: KNOWLEDGE, FAMILIARITY, RELEVANCE AND ATTITUDE .................................110 MANIPULATION CHECKS.........................................................................................................................112 EFFECTS OF PERSUASIVE MESSAGES ON ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR INTENTIONS ............................118 CHAPTER 5 ..............................................................................................................................................148 INFLUENCE OF EMOTION AND PERSONAL AGENCY MESSAGES ON PERSUASIVE OUTCOMES.............148 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................154 FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS .............................................................................158 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................................164 LIST OF REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................166 APPENDIX A – PERSUASIVE MESSAGES.......................................................................................174 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Factor Analyses of the Manipulations, Communication, Attitude, and Behavior Measure …………………………………………………………………………..114 Table 3.2 Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Factor Analyses of the Pre- disposition Measures……………………………………………………115 Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants…………………………...118 Table 4.2 Knowledge, Familiarity and Personal Relevance level by Topic……....121 Table 4.3 Personal Agency Means (and Standard Deviations) for the Personal Agency Induction Messages……………………………………….…...122 Table 4.4 Emotion Means (and Standard Deviations) for Guilt in Guilt Induction Messages………………………………………………………………..123 Table 4.5 Emotion Means (and Standard Deviations) for Guilt Relief in Guilt Induction Messages…………………………………………………….124 Table 4.6 Emotion Means (and Standard Deviations) for the Hope Induction Messages……………………………………………………....…….…125 Table 4.7 Descriptive Statistics for Attitude Scores Pre-Message and Post- Messaage………………………………………………………………..128 Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics for Behavior Scores Pre-Message and Post- Message…………………………………………………………………129 Table 4.9 Means (and Standard Deviations) for Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intentions for Manipulations and Control Group for Recycling ……………………………………………………….…..131 Table 4.10 Means (and Standard Deviations) for Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intentions for Manipulations and Control Group for CFL bulbs …………………………………………………………..132 Table 4.11 Attitude, Behavior and Perceived Message Effectiveness Means (and Standard Deviations) for Low and High Pre-attitude Groups by Manipulations (present or absent) for Recycling Topic…………….…136 viii Table 4.12 Attitude, Behavior and Perceived Message Effectiveness Means (and Standard Deviations) for Low and High Pre-attitude Groups by Manipulations (present or absent) for CFL topic……………….……..138 Table 4.13 Moderated Hierachical Regression Analyses for Prior Attitudes and Emotion Appeals or PAA on Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intentions Towards Recycling…………………………142 Table 4.14 Moderated Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Prior Attitudes and Hope Appeals or PAA on Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intentions Towards Using CFL bulbs………….………….144 Table 4.15 Descriptive Statistics for Message Manipulations on Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intention for Recycling Messages………………………………………………………………..147 Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics for Message Manipulations on Perceived Message Effectiveness, Attitude and Behavioral Intention for CFL Messages….148 Table 4.17 Multiple Regression Analyses for Attitude, Subjective Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, Guilt Manipulation and Guilt Manipulation/Guilt Emotion Measure Message/Emotion on Behavioral Intentions toward Recycling…………………………………………………………...…..150 Table 4.18 Multiple Regression Analysis for Attitude, Subjective Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, Guilt Manipulation and Guilt Manipulation/Guilt Emotion Measure Message/Emotion on Behavioral Intentions toward Recycling……………………………………………………………….151 Table 4.19 Multiple Regression Analyses for Attitude, Subjective Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, Hope Manipulation and Hope Manipulation/Emotion Measure on Behavioral Intentions Toward Recycling…………………152 Table 4.20 Moderated Multiple Regression Analyses for Attitude, Subjective Norm, Perceived Behavioral Control, PAA Manipulation and PAA Manipulation/ PAA Measure on Behavioral Intentions Toward Recycling……………153 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION As Bertrand Russell has said, “[t]he degree of one’s emotions varies inversely with the facts.” Many of us might agree, asserting that our attitudes, beliefs and behaviors are based on a logical and objective interpretation of the information at hand. th Is this truly the case, however? As 18 Century philosopher George Campbell said, “[the passions] are not the supplanters of reason, or even rivals in her sway; they are her handmaids, by whose ministry she is enabled to usher truth into the heart” (p. 72). Communication scholars James Price Dillard and Anneloes Meijnders (2002) have echoed Campbell’s assertion, stating that “[w]hereas it is common in Western cultures to conceive of logic and emotion as oppositional tendencies, … not only do feelings serve reason, but they can do so in ways that ‘usher in the truth’ (p. 309). Campbell contended that even though “the passions” may sometimes serve to “introduce falsehood”, they cannot be dismissed, as they are necessary to employ based on our very nature. Dillard and Meijnders not only agreed with Campbell’s assertion that affect must be present for persuasion to occur, but contend that persuasive messages must evoke emotion if they are to succeed and, because individuals are always in some affective state, arousing an emotional state prior to a suasory appeal may influence 1