Institute for Chinese Studies Library Walton Street ELUSIVE PIRATES, Oxford OXI2HG,U.K. Tel: +441865280430 PERVASIVE Fax: +44 1865 280431 SMUGGLERS Violence and Clandestine Trade in the Greater China Seas Edited by Robert J. Antony HONG KONG UNIVERSITY PRESS Hong Kong University Press 14/F King Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong © Hong Kong University Press 2010 ISBN 978-988-8028-11-5 For Lanshin All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Secure On-line Ordering http://www.hkupress.org British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Oxford University Library Services Bodleian Library Printed and bound by Kings Time Printing Press Ltd., Hong Kong, China. Contents Acknowledgements ix List of Contributors xi List of Illustrations v X 1. Introduction: The Shadowy World of the Greater China Seas l Robert J, Antony 2. Violence at Sea: Unpacking "Piracy" in the Claims of States over 15 Asian Seas Anthony Reid 3. From Sea Bandits to Sea Lords: Nonstate Violence and Pirate 27 Identities in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Japan Peter D. Shapinsky 4. Merchants, Smugglers, and Pirates: Multinational Clandestine Trade 43 on the South China Coast, 1520-50 James K. Chin 5. Pirates, Gunpowder, and Christianity in Late Sixteenth-Century Japan 59 Maria Grazia Petrucci 6. At the Crossroads: Limahon and Wako in Sixteenth-Century Philippines 73 Igawa Kenji viii Contents I. Piracy and Coastal Security in Southeastern China, 1600-1780 85 Paola Calanca Acknowledgements 8. Piracy and the Shadow Economy in the South China Sea, 1780-1810 99 Robert J. Antony 9. Poor but Not Pirates: The Tsushima Domain and Foreign Relations 115 in Early Modern Japan Robert Hellyer 10. The Business of Violence: Piracy around Riau, Lingga, and 127 Singapore, 1820-40 Ota Atxushi , The idea for doing this book began several years ago at a workshop on the history I1. Smuggling in the South China Sea: Alternate Histories of a Nonstate 143 of the South China Sea organized by Charles Wheeler, then at the University of Space in the Late Nineteenth and Late Twentieth Centuries California, Irvine. A few years later, at a conference in Shanghai on Asian piracy, Eric TagUacozzo I found a number of colleagues and friends interested in participating in another conference on this inexhaustible topic. Things were coming together but we Notes 155 still needed funding and a venue. In 2006, when the National Institute for South China Seas Studies, located on beautiful Hainan Island, invited me to give a talk, Glossary 175 I suggested to Dr. Wu Shichun, president of the institute, that Hainan would be the perfect place to hold a conference on Asian piracy. He agreed, and in March Bibliography 179 2008, his institute generously funded and organized an international conference on "Piracy and Maritime Security in the South China Sea," held in the resort city of Index 195 Sanya at the southern lip of Hainan. The more than twenty papers presented at the conference covered a wide range of historical and contemporary issues concerning piracy, smuggling, and maritime security. Participants came from all over the globe — from China, Hong Kong, Macau. Singapore, Canada, the United Stales, Japan, Australia, and Europe. Unfortunately, we could not include all the excellent papers in this book. Besides expressing my gratitude to Dr. Wu, I wish to thank other researchers and staff at the institute who made the conference so fruitful and memorable. Special thanks go to Dr. Zhu Huayou, the institute's vice-president, and to Ren Huaifeng, Xu Fang, Deng Yingying, and Chen Pingping for translations and local arrangements. I also appreciate the mayor of Sanya taking time out of his busy schedule to give the opening talk at the conference and Professors Anthony Reid and Zou Keyuan for giving keynote speeches. I wish to thank all the participants for the many lively and informative discussions we had during the presentations, at meals, and on the beach. Everyone benefited from such a diverse group of international scholars from many disciplines. In particular, I am grateful to Li Jinming, Charles Wheeler, Manel Olle, Patrizia Carioti, Henry Xu, and Lucio de Sousa for bringing their expertise and x Acknowledgements camaraderie to the conference. In editing this book, I appreciate the help given by friends and colleagues, especially Michael Pearson, Paul Van Dyke, Bill Guthrie, Vincent Ho, and Lanshin Chang. Finally, I wish to thank the Yamaguchi Prefectural Archives and the Goyoda Contributors City Provincial Museum, both in Japan, for permissions to use illustrations for this book. Zhuo Jia Cun, Taipa, Macau December 14,2009 •Robert J.Antony, who earned his doctorate in history at the University of Hawai'i, is a professor of Chinese and comparative history at the University of Macau. His research focuses on Asian and world maritime history, and his recent publications include Like Froth Floating on the Sea: The World of Pirates and Seafarers in Late Imperial South China (2003) and Pirates in the Age of Sail (2007). He is currently working on a book on the evolution of modern piracy in South China from 1837 to 1937. Paola Calanca is an associate professor of history at the Ecole Franchise d'Extreme- Orient. Most of her current work, based on extensive archival research in Beijing and Taiwan, examines the theoretical organization and actual performance of the Ming and Qing navies. Over the past few years, she has been conducting fieldwork in China's coastal provinces, studying coastal defense works and collecting local materials, in particular inscriptions relating to social and economic life. Her most recent book is Piraterie el contrebande an Fujian dit XVetne an debui du XIX$me siecle (2008). James K. Chin is a research fellow at the Centre of Asian Studies, the University of Hong Kong. His research interests include the history of maritime Asia, Chinese international migration and diaspora, and China-Southeast Asian relations. He has published more than sixty journal articles and book chapters, and is currently working on a book on the Chinese commercial diaspora in maritime Asia before 1800. Robert Hellyer, who received his doctorate at Stanford University, is an assistant professor of history at Wake Forest University. He specializes in early modem and modern Japanese history. His most recent publication is Defining Engagement: Japan and Global Contexts, 1640-1868 (2010). He is currently working on a book about Japan's tea export trade in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Contributors xiif xil Contributors Igawa Ki-iiji obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Tokyo, and is currently 1865-1915 (2005), which won the Harry J. Benda Prize from the Association for Asian Studies in 2007. He is also the editor or co-editor of three books: Southeast an associate professor in the Graduate School of Letters al Osaka University, He Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the tongue Duree (2009); Clio/ specializes in Ihe hisrory of international relalions in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Anthropos- Exploring the Boundaries between History and Anthropology (2009); Asia. In 2001, the Society of Japanese History awarded him its prize for his studies. and The Indonesia Reader: History, Culture, Politics (2009). His next monograph His current research concerns Europe-Southeast Asia-Japan relations. In 2007, he will be The Longest Journey: Southeast Asians and the Pilgrimage to Mecca. published Daikokai Jidai no Higashi Ajia [East Asia in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries]. Ota Atsushi obtained his Ph.D. from Leiden University and is an assistant research fellow at the Center for Asia-Pacific Area Studies, Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academia Sinica,Taipei. He specializes in the maritime history of Southeast Asia. His recent publications include Changes of Regime and Social Dynamics in West Java: Society, State, and the Outer World of Banten, 1750-1830 (2006) and "Eighteenth-Century Southeast Asia and World Economy," in Momoki Shiro (ed.), Kaiiki Ajia-shi nyttman [Introduction to history of maritime Asia] (2008). He is currently researching maritime violence and the changing trade order around the Malacca Strait from the 1780s to the 1840s. Maria Grazia Petrucci is a doctoral student in the University of British Columbia, specializing in Japanese history. Her research focuses on sixteenth-century Japanese piracy,Christianity, and mercantile associations. She is also interested in comparisons between Japanese piracy and Mediterranean piracy in the sixteenth century. Her contribution to this volume is part of her dissertation. Anthony Reid is professor emeritus in the Department of Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University. His books include Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce. 1450-1680, 2 vols. (1988-93); Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia (1999); An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese and Other Histories of Sumaira (2004); and Imperial Alchemy: Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia (forthcoming). Peter D, Shapinsky is an assistant professor at the University of Illinois at Springfield, where he teaches East Asian history. He is completing a book, Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan, which interprets late medieval Japanese history (c.1300-1600) from the perspective of the sea by exploring the roles of seafarers labeled as pirates in the maritime networks linking Japan and Eurasia. Eric Tagliacozzo is an associate professor of history at Cornell University, where he teaches Southeast Asian history and Asian studies. He is the author of Secret Trades, Porous Borders: Smuggling and States along a Southeast Asian Frontier, 10 Robert J. Antony Introduction 11 control such illicit trading hubs, the government sent in the military to destroy them. fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In Chapter Seven, Paola Calanca closely analyses Sometimes, official trading areas declined and became bases for covert activities, the crucial transitional period between 1600 and 1780, providing a bridge between as in the case of Riau after the Dutch War of 1784.30 Other areas more successfully the first and second halves of the book. The remaining four chapters deal with the made the transition from illegitimate to legitimate, such as the islands of Itsukushima nineteenth century and afterwards. The three chapters by Shapinsky, Petrucci, and and Tsushima in Japan, and the ports of Yuegang and Amoy (Xiamen) in China. In Hellyer focus mainly on Japan and the seas around it; the three chapters by Chin, the latter two cases, for example, Yuegang emerged as a prosperous smugglers port Calanca, and Antony concentrate chiefly on China and Chinese maritime outlaws; in the fifteenth century and an offset to the official port at Quanzhou. After the and the chapters by Reid, Igawa, Ota, and Tagliacozzo principally concern the water government recognized Yuegang as an administrative seat in 1567, smugglers and world of Southeast Asia. pirates moved elsewhere, in particular, to Amoy. During the late sixteenth and early While piracy might have been economically motivated, it also carried intensely seventeenth centuries, Chinese and foreign smugglers and pirates used Amoy as political overtones. Modern states view any acts of violence in their territories or their meeting place, and, for much of the seventeenth century, it also served as the possessions not by their own agents as illegal and potentially subversive. In his major base of operations for the Zheng family's piratical empire. In 1684, with the chapter, Anthony Reid examines "piracy" — a particular type of violence at sea downfall of the Zhengs, the Qing court designated Amoy as a legitimate port and the — over the past several centuries. Because the word piracy is specifically English, clandestine trade moved elsewhere.31 A majority of the illicit ports, however, were • and comes out of a particular European experience, it does not so easily translate not as successful as Yuegang and Amoy; most were small and remained anonymous into Asian languages. This chapter seeks to connect our present concern with piracy and unsanctioned. by studying understandings of the term by the Chinese and Malay, the two Asian As several chapters in this volume explain, the aid that pirates and smugglers experiences that have intersected most with European concepts of piracy. In so received from coastal residents, including fishermen, sailors, merchants, soldiers, and doing, Reid utilizes the concept of "organized hypocrisy" in the international system officials, factored significantly in their success. Whenever they lost that patronage, to demonstrate the way both outlaws and states have manipulated piracy over the piracy and smuggling declined. As Calanca explains, piracy in southern China past several centuries. In hindsight, he concludes, we must recognize the period ol diminished greatly in the eighteenth century in large measure because wealthy and "pirate" suppression in the first half of the twentieth century as an exception rathei powerful coastal families in Fujian decided to back the new Qing government and than the norm for our contemporary international order. oppose piracy. A century earlier, in Japan, the new Tokugawa shogunate substantially Peter Shapinsky discusses further the meanings of piracy in the context ol curbed the power of piratical "sea lords" around the Seto Inland Sea by forcefully fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Japan. Departing from most Japanese scholars relocating them inland away from their bases of support.32 Hellyer also shows that depiction of pirates as feudal vassals, he describes them as entrepreneurs of violence nineteenth-century Japan had few pirates because financial assistance, first from the as free agents who sold their services in the emerging monetized economy — th< Korean government and later from the Japanese government, obviated the need for embodiment of mercenarism rather than vassalage. Commerce and violence did no turning to piracy. Over the latter part of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, contradict each other. His chapter explores the potential for using Janice Thomson': while never completely disappearing, piracy had greatly decreased. It happened not concept of "nonstate violence" as a way to understand the challenges that seafarer; only because of the appearance of steam warships after the 1830s, and the relentless labeled pirates posed for land-based polities in contemporary and historical contexts destruction of pirate strongholds, but also because national and colonial authorities To do so, Shapinsky considers the trans-border cultures of seafaring in a case stud; resettled maritime raiders away from the coast where they expected them to engage of one of the most traveled sea lanes in premodern Japanese as well as East Asiai in farming and other peaceful trades. history — the region known today as the Seto Inland Sea. The first half of the sixteenth century marked a unique period in the history o maritime Asia, when large numbers of Chinese smugglers and pirates congregated o: Studies in This Volume the South China coast, where they bartered with merchants from different countries While most historians have viewed the foreign presence along the China coast a This volume arranges the following ten chapters, which cover six hundred years an unwelcome intrusion and a manifestation of imperialism, James Chin argue from the fifteenth century to the present, more or less chronologically. After Anthony that the foreigners, in truth, positively influenced the Chinese economy by bringin Reid's chapter, which discusses the perceptions of piracy in China and Southeast Asia it new life. In fact, this period saw a new maritime economy and regional trad over several centuries, the next four chapters look at piracy and smuggling in the system emerging in southern China with joint ventures and emporia establishe Illustrations Map 1.1 The Greater China Seas Region Map 1.2 Sailing Routes in the Greater China Seas, c. 1600-1800 Map 3.1 The Seto Inland Sea in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries Map 4.1 Shuangyu Island and the Zhejiang Coast, c. 1550 Map 5.1 Southwestern Japan in the Late Sixteenth Century Map 6.1 The Philippines and Southeast Asia in the Sixteenth Century Map 6.2 Areas of Lin Feng's Activities, 1571-89 Map 7.1 The Southeast Coast of China in the Eighteenth Century Map 8.1 The Guangdong Coast, c. 1800 Map 8.2 The Pearl River Delta, c. 1800 Map 9.1 Japan in the Early Nineteenth Century Map 10.1 Riau, Lingga, Singapore, and the Malacca Strait, c. 1840 Figure 2.1 European Representation of a Dayak Warrior Figure 3.1 Noshima Murakami Flag-Pass Figure 4.1 Ming Dynasty War Junk Figure 5.1 Samurai Drilling with Firearms Figure 7.1 Famine Victims Selling Their Children Figure 7.2 Qing Era License for Fishing Boats Figure 8.1 Clandestine and Legal Trade Routes Figure 8.2 The Unsanctioned Port of Giang Binh Figure 10.1 Bugis Warriors Figure 10.2 Sumatran Weapons Table 8.1 Sanctioned Ports, Unsanctioned Ports, and Pirate Lairs in 102 Guangdong,1780-1810 Table 8.2 Amounts of Ransoms Paid to Pirates, 1796-1809 110 Introduction: The Shadowy World of the Greater China Seas Robert J. Antony Many problems of the past still haunt us today — piracy and smuggling among them. Although maritime marauding reached a peak in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries — the so-called "golden age of piracy" — it has never completely vanished from around the globe. Today, piracy appears in many of the same areas where it thrived two or three hundred years ago. Although a worldwide presence, the largest number of pirates and the highest total of incidents of piracy today, as in the past, take place in Asian waters. Alongside piracy, smuggling always has posed a problem, and comprised a way of life in this area of the world. In fact, piracy and smuggling usually went hand-in-hand and have continually occurred for many of the same reasons. As recurring cyclical phenomena, the piracy and smuggling of today are inescapably bound to the piracy and smuggling of the past. Viewed from this vantage point, we should regard them as malleable concepts with multiple layers of meanings relative to time, place, and culture. Both piracy and smuggling involve complex, still-evolving historical processes. Although often dismissed as historically unimportant, in reality, pirates and smugglers have played key roles in the development of modern society. We like to read about pirates and smugglers because their stories are captivating. Just to mention the word pirates evokes colorful and fanciful images of rogues like Blackboard and Long John Silver. We can appreciate them as treacherous and bloodthirsty villains, yet at the same time, we might look upon them as romantic, swashbuckling heroes. Our appetite for stories about piracy and the sea seems unquenchable; there are hundreds of books, cartoons, songs, television dramas, and movies produced on these subjects each year. However, we should look at pirates and smugglers not only because of their intrigue but also because of their importance. Piracy and smuggling always have been closely linked to issues of maritime security and national sovereignty. Today, as in past ages, they have cost honest, legitimate commerce and business millions of dollars every year, not to mention the toll in human lives and destroyed property. Conversely, piracy and smuggling also have Robert J. Antony Introduction stimulated and fostered an extensive shadow or informal economy and a vibrant PhilipPme Islands and Taiwan border the east, with the Malay Peninsula, Thailanc subculture. Cambodia, and Vietnam on the west (see Map 1.1). Following the five oceans, thi Pirates and smugglers were elusive, but pervasive, creatures with different but region constitutes the next greatest body of water. Even before the appearance o interrelated activities. Though both may also have had political and social overtones, European explorers and adventurers in the sixteenth century, it was and has sine economic factors fundamentally motivated them. Most people engaged in piracy and remained one of the busiest shipping zones in the world. Today, in terms of worl smuggling to earn money, but they may also have used these activities to gain social annual merchant fleet tonnage, over fifty percent passes through the Malaccs status or as forms of protest, for example, against colonialism. Unlike smugglers, Sunda, and Lombok Straits. This vast expanse of water, with its countless island pirates traded in stolen goods obtained through violence. Still, like smugglers, pirates and harbors, has provided not only seamen and merchants but also pirates an disposed their loot in the same black markets and trading networks. Pirates and smugglers with jobs and livelihoods for centuries. In fact, as the authors in this boo! smugglers contrasted the most, it seems, in the methods used to procure the goods demonstrate, piracy and smuggling played integral, even essential, roles in shapin that they traded; in disposing of them, however, they were functionally the same. East and Southeast Asian history. Also, because smuggling was illegal, sometimes smugglers had to use violence to protect their interests or to defend themselves against repressive authorities, thereby becoming little different from pirates. The Greater China Seas Region Furthermore, some people who became pirates and smugglers did not consider themselves outlaws or their activities illicit. As Anthony Reid reminds us in his Most histories of Asia stop at the water's edge, treating the littoral and the sea chapter, what we label as piracy is a Western construct, and may have had little to beyond as peripheral and, therefore, less important. According to conventions do with native Asian perceptions. From the perspective of most governments and wisdom, major events and ideas emanated from the land and not from the sea victims, pirates and smugglers appeared as merely criminals, but in the eyes of In this book, however, we depart radically from the standard terra-centere their supporters and their own self-image, they believed their enterprises justified histories to place the seas at the center rather than at the margins of our inquiries and proper. It was not uncommon for pirates to become folk heroes; Asian societies Ocean and sea basins encompass, as Jerry Bentley explains, important "units c also have their equivalents of Francis Drake and Henry Morgan. Likewise, many analysis to the extent that human societies engage in interaction across bodies c smugglers considered themselves as authorized because local practices and official water."3 The seas acted as buffers between land-based polities, contested "zones o connivances safeguarded such activities and thereby gave them a sense of validity. transition" that were "crucial both for the conduct of commerce and for the exercis In some cases, such informal trade appeared safer and better protected than the of power."4 Making the seas the focus of our analysis allows us to more easil legitimate trade. Since the illicit trade supported the licit trade, and the two were transcend geopolitical boundaries to examine the interconnectedness of the entir interconnected, smuggling proved difficult to eradicate and, in fact, some officials region encompassing East and Southeast Asia. Focusing on the water, rather tha even tolerated it.' on the land, better enables us to stitch together the diverse histories of Japan, Chim Because of the nature of their work, pirates and smugglers left few records, and Southeast Asia. The greater China Seas region is best viewed as the sum of it which would, indeed, have been risky to keep. They did not want to draw attention multiple parts and pasts. to themselves from officials. Sometimes, pirate gangs went to extraordinary lengths What we call the greater China Seas region does not appear as an autonomou to remain anonymous, even murdering entire crews of ships that they attacked in body of water easily delineated by a simple set of boundaries, but rather, a vas order to eliminate any witnesses. Hence, the famous pirate adage: "Dead men tell water world of "porous borders" and "flows and seepages."5 Matt Matsuda' no lies." What we know about pirates and smugglers, therefore, comes chiefly from description about the Pacific applies equally well to the China Seas: "an Oceani their enemies and victims. As the documents are biased, obscure, and fragmentary, space of movement, transit, and migration in a tongue duree of local peoples an we need to use a broad range of sources in many different languages. The studies in broad interactions."6 Indeed, it consisted of not one sea but a "complex of seas this volume do exactly that. radiating from the core South China Sea into the East China Sea and Japan's Set This book examines the extent, diffusion, and characteristics of piracy and Inland Sea to the north, and into the smaller Sulu, Java, Celebes, and Banda Seas t smuggling in the greater China Seas region over the past six centuries. At the fringe the south. Open waters and narrow passages — the Malacca, Sunda, and Tsushim of the Pacific Ocean, the China Seas encompass over four million square kilometers Straits — connected the China Seas and its shores to their various component part from Indonesia and Borneo in the south to China, Korea, and Japan in the north. The and to the world at large.