Electronic and Electrical Engineering Other Macmillan titles of related interest: W. A. Atherton, From Compass to Computer B. R. Bannister and D.G. Whitehead, Fundamentals of Modern Digital Systems J. C. Cluley, Transistors for Microprocessor Systems Donard de Cogan, Solid State Devices - A Quantum Physics Approach C. W. Davidson, Transmission Lines for Communications, second edition M. E. Goodge, Analog Electronics B. A. Gregory, An Introduction to Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement Systems, second edition Paul A. Lynn, An Introduction to the Analysis and Processing of Signals, third edition Noel M. Morris, Electrical Circuit Analysis and Design P. Silvester, Electric Circuits L. A. A. Warnes, Electronic Materials B. W. Williams, Power Electronics- Devices, Drivers, Applications and Passive Components Macmillan New Electronics Series Series Editor: Paul A. Lynn Rodney F. W. Coates, Underwater Acoustic Systems M. D. Edwards, Automatic Logic Synthesis Techniques for Digital Systems Peter J. Fish, Electronic Noise and Low Noise Design W. Forsythe and R. M. Goodall, Digital Control C. G. Guy, Data Communications for Engineers Paul A. Lynn, Digital Signals, Processors and Noise Paul A. Lynn, Radar Systems R. C. V. Macario, Cellular Radio - Principles and Design A. F. Murray and H. M. Reekie, Integrated Circuit Design F. J. Owens, Signal Processing of Speech Dennis N. Pim, Television and Teletext M. Richharia, Satellite Communications Systems M. J. N. Sibley, Optical Communications P. M. Taylor, Robotic Control G. S. Virk, Digital Computer Control Systems Allan Waters, Active Filter Design Electronic and Electrical Engineering Principles and Practice L. A. A. Warnes Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering Loughborough University of Technology M MACMILLAN © L. A. A. W ames 1994 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Dedicated to Alexis W ames First published 1994 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-58000-4 ISBN 978-1-349-13012-2 (eBook) DOl 10.1007/978-1-349-13012-2 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Cover photographs courtesy of Intel Corporation (UK) Ltd and Barnaby's Picture Library (London) Contents Preface viii 6 Semiconductors 128 Constants ix 6.1 Electrons and holes in Units X semiconductors 128 6.2 Electrical conductivity 129 1 Circuit analysis 1 6.3 The p-n junction 132 6.4 A glossary of terms 133 1.1 Sources 1 1.2 Passive circuit elements 3 7 Diodes 136 1.3 Practical circuit elements 7 1.4 Circuit analysis and Kirchhoff's 7.1 Junction diodes 136 laws 12 7.2 Schottky diodes 140 1.5 Circuit theorems and 7.3 Zener diodes 142 transformations 17 7.4 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 145 1.6 Power and energy 26 7.5 Applications for diodes 147 1.7 Mesh analysis and nodal analysis 29 8 Bipolar junction transistors 156 2 Sinusoidally-excited circuits 38 8.1 Theory of operation 156 2.1 Sinusoidal excitation 38 8.2 Characteristics of the common- 2.2 Phasors 45 emitter amplifier 158 2.3 Circuit analysis with AC 49 8.3 Biasing the transistor: 2.4 Power in AC circuits 56 Q-point and load lines 159 2.5 Resonant circuits 59 8.4 The small-signal equivalent circuit 161 3 Operational amplifiers 69 8.5 The voltage-divider bias circuit 162 8.6 The h-parameters 164 3.1 The golden rules 69 8.7 The low-frequency response 166 3.2 Some common op-amp circuits 70 8.8 The high-frequency response 166 3.3 Analogue computing 73 8.9 The emitter follower, or 3.4 Practical op amps 74 common-collector amplifier 168 3.5 Comparators 77 8.10 Transistor switches 170 3.6 Schmitt triggers 78 8.11 BJT specifications 171 4 Transients 83 9 Field-effect transistors 175 4.1 Transients in RC and RL circuits 83 9.1 The structure of a FET 175 4.2 The Laplace transformation 89 9.2 The junction field-effect 4.3 Transients in RLC circuits 101 transistor 176 9.3 The practical FET amplifier 179 5 Bode diagrams and two- 9.4 Specifications of some readily port networks 109 available FETS 182 5.1 The steady-state frequency 10 ICs and analogue circuits 185 response of circuits 109 5.2 Two-port networks 117 10.1 IC fabrication technology 186 v Vl Contents 10.2 Analogue circuits 190 15.4 Losses in transformers 285 10.3 Filters 190 15.5 Voltage regulation 289 10.4 Oscillators 199 15.6 Design considerations 292 10.5 Voltage regulators 204 15.7 Special types of transformer 294 10.6 Analogue-to-digital and digital- to-analogue converters 205 16 Induction motors 298 11 Power amplifiers and 16.1 The construction of a squirrel- power supplies 211 cage motor 299 16.2 Rotation of the stator field 299 11.1 Class-A amplifiers 211 16.3 Slip 302 11.2 Class-B amplifiers 215 16.4 The equivalent circuit of an 11.3 Class-C amplifiers 218 induction machine 303 11.4 Class-D amplifiers 219 16.5 Torque and slip in an 11.5 Power supplies 220 induction machine 305 11.6 Cooling 223 16.6 Evaluating the components of the equivalent circuit 307 12 Magnetism and electro- 16.7 Power and efficiency 309 magnetism 227 16.8 Practical induction machines 313 16.9 Domestic-supply induction 12.1 Magnetic units and quantities 227 motors 315 12.2 The magnetic circuit 229 12.3 Hysteresis 230 17 Synchronous machines 320 12.4 Eddy currents 233 12.5 Faraday's law of electro- 17.1 Synchronous generators 320 magnetic induction 233 17.2 Synchronous torque 321 12.6 Inductors 237 17.3 The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator 321 13 DC machines 239 17.4 Per-unit values and the short- circuit ratio 322 13.1 A prototype machine 239 17.5 The generator under load 323 13.2 DC generators 242 17.6 The generator on an infinite bus 324 13.3 DC motors 252 17.7 The construction of synchronous 13.4 Efficiency and losses 262 machines 326 17.8 Synchronous motors 328 14 Three-phase systems 267 18 Power electronics 334 14.1 The generation of three-phase electricity 267 18.1 The three-phase bridge rectifier 334 14.2 Balanced loads 270 18.2 Power semiconductor devices 336 14.3 Unbalanced loads 272 18.3 Power-control circuits using 14.4 Power measurement in three- thyristors 342 phase circuits 276 18.4 Motor control with power electronics 346 15 Transformers 279 19 Combinational logic 354 15.1 The ideal transformer 279 15.2 The equivalent circuit of a 19.1 Binary and hexadecimal numbers 354 transformer 283 19.2 Boolean algebra 357 15.3 Calculating leakage inductance 284 19.3 Logic gates 360 Contents Vll 19.4 de Morgan's theorems 362 23.7 Noise 463 19.5 Negative logic 363 19.6 Minterms and maxterms 364 24 Digital communications 476 19.7 Karnaugh mapping and circuit minimisation 367 24.1 Binary modulation 476 19.8 Some practical examples 370 24.2 Pulse-code modulation 483 19.9 Programmable logic arrays 374 24.3 The theoretical maximum for 19.10 Practical aspects of logic circuits 375 the channel capacity 488 20 Sequential logic 378 25 Fibre-optic communications 491 20.1 Unclocked flip-flops 378 25.1 Pros and cons of fibre-optics 491 20.2 Clocked flip-flops 380 25.2 The transmitter 492 20.3 Counters and shift registers 382 25.3 The channel: optical fibres 494 20.4 The monostable multivibrator 389 25.4 Optoelectronic signal detectors 501 20.5 Timers 390 25.5 The ultimate performance of 20.6 Multiplexers 391 optical receivers 504 21 Computers 394 26 Telephony 507 21.1 Computer architecture 395 26.1 Signalling 507 21.2 The CPU 396 26.2 BORSCHT 509 21.3 Memory 399 26.3 Transmission systems 509 21.4 Input and output devices 404 26.4 Multiplexing 511 21.5 Computer networks 413 26.5 Companding 512 21.6 Programming languages 415 26.6 Telephone exchanges 513 26.7 Telephone-traffic theory 515 22 Microprocessors and 26.8 SPC exchanges 518 microcontrollers 419 26.9 The integrated services digital network (ISDN) 520 22.1 The Intel MCS-51 micro- controllers 421 27 Electromagnetic 22.2 The 8051 clock and the machine compatibility 522 cycle time 423 22.3 The special-function registers 424 27.1 Sources of EMI 523 22.4 Moving data 432 27.2 Conductor shielding 524 22.5 Logical operations 435 27.3 Grounding 527 22.6 Arithmetic operations 438 27.4 Shielding with sheet conductors 529 22.7 Jumps 442 27.5 EMI filtering 533 22.8 Calls and subroutines 445 27.6 Legal requirements: EN55014 537 22.9 Look-up tables 446 28 Measurements and 23 Analogue communications 448 instruments 540 23.1 The elements of a communica- 28.1 Accuracy 540 tions system 448 28.2 Standards and transducers for 23.2 The electromagnetic spectrum 449 measurements 543 23.3 Amplitude modulation 450 28.3 Instruments 546 23.4 Frequency modulation 455 23.5 AM and FM compared 461 23.6 Pulse modulation 462 Index 559 Preface N UNDERSTANDING of the basic principles and many of the important A practical applications of electronic and electrical engineering is now essential to many practitioners of other disciplines. Through teaching electrical engineering subjects to electrical, civil, mechanical and production engineering students over a number of years, I have been aware that there is an urgent need for a book which goes into sufficient depth to be useful, without being over-complicated or cluttered with too- rigorous and exhaustive a mathematical treatment. In this book, the level of mathematical difficulty is approximately that of A-level, though in most chapters there is nothing so advanced. The aim here has been to establish the foundations thoroughly and then build onto them at least the ground floor of the edifice that this vast subject has evolved into today. While the requirements of the non-specialist are given due priority, the intention is also to provide a useful first course for HNCIHND and undergraduate engineering students. I hope that the practical side of the subject has not been lost to sight; and it has been my intention throughout to illustrate the theory with applications, wherever possible. The book starts with two chapters on the fundamental subject of circuit analysis, or circuit theory. These are succeeded by chapters devoted to operational amplifiers and the steady-state and transient responses of circuits. Semiconductor theory is briefly reviewed in chapter 6, following which discrete devices and circuits are discussed in chapters 7, 8 and 9. Chapter 10 deals with integrated circuits and the more common analogue circuits. Machines and power make up an important central section of the work in Chapters 11 to 18. Digital electronics, computers and microprocessors are discussed in Chapters 19 to 22. There are four chapters given to communications, including analogue, digital and fibre- optic communications and telephony. Two concluding chapters deal with less central subjects of considerable importance to a wide public: electromagnetic compatibility (EMC ) and instruments and measurements. EMC has become far more important since wide- ranging EC regulations became law and now affects every single piece of electrical equipment made and used in the Community. A working knowledge of electrical measurements, their accuracy and achievement is essential to engineers and technicians in every field, and a chapter on these topics rounds off the book. Many people have helped in writing this book, especially the reviewers, of which there have been a score or more, known and unknown. I am also grateful to my students who have from time to time taken the trouble to read parts of the work and have offered useful suggestions for improvement: Wayne Lyons in particular was very helpful with microcontrollers. My thanks to all of these, but a special word of gratitude to my publisher, Malcolm Stewart, who has maintained a keen interest in the genesis and sometimes difficult birth of this offspring and has never been less than encouraging. To my wife, Irene, I offer my apologies for taking up the pen so very soon after I had said I would not, with all the consequent sacrifices of time and attention; and my thanks too for her unfailing support and encouragement. Loughborough, 1993 L.A.A.W. viii Constants The speed of light in a vacuum, c 3 x 108 m/s The permeability of free space or the magnetic constant, p0 41t X 10-7 H/m The permittivity of free space or the electric constant, Eo 8.85 X w-12 F/m Planck's constant, h 6.626 X 10-34 Js Boltzmann's constant, k 1.38 x w-23 J/K The electronic charge, q 1.6 x to-19 c Notes: c = 1/V'(po£o). Impedance of free space, Z0 = V(Jlo/Eo) = 377 n. The above, where approximated, are accurate to ±0.14%. ix