Electric Energy Systems Analysis and Operation © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC The ELECTRIC POWER ENGINEERING Series Series Editor Leo L. Grigsby Published Titles Electric Drives Ion Boldea and Syed Nasar Linear Synchronous Motors: Transportation and Automation Systems Jacek Gieras and Jerry Piech Electromechanical Systems, Electric Machines,and Applied Mechatronics Sergey E. Lyshevski Electrical Energy Systems, Second Edition Mohamed E. El-Hawary The Induction Machine Handbook Ion Boldea and Syed Nasar Power Quality C. Sankaran Power System Operations and Electricity Markets Fred I. Denny and David E. Dismukes Computational Methods for Electric Power Systems Mariesa Crow Electric Power Substations Engineering John D. McDonald Electric Power Transformer Engineering James H. I Electric Power Distribution Handbook Tom Short Synchronous Generators Ion Boldea Variable Speed Generators Ion Boldea Harmonics and Power Systems Francisco C, De La Rosa Electric Machines Charles A. Gross Distribution System Modeling and Analysis, Second Edition William H. Kersting Electric Energy Systems: Analysis and Operation Antonio Gomez-Exposito, Antonio J. Conejo, and Claudio Canizares © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Electric Energy Systems Analysis and Operation EDITED BY ANTONIO GOMEZ-EXPOSITO University of Sevilla Spain ANTONIO J. CONEJO Unversity of Castilla-La Mancha Ciudad-Real, Spain CLAUDIO CANIZARES University ofWaterloo Ontario, Canada CRC Press Taylor &. Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Cover: 34-MW Wind Farm at Arlanzon (Burgos province, in Spain). Courtesy of Neo Energfa. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 987654321 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-7365-7 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti- lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy- ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For orga- nizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Electric energy systems : analysis and operation / editors, Antonio Gomez-Exposito, Antonio J. Conejo, Claudio Canizares. p. cm. — (The electric power engineering series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8493-7365-7 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Electric power systems. I. Gomez Exposito, Antonio. II. Conejo, Antonio J. III. Canizares, Claudio. TK1001.E347 2008 621.319-dc22 2008013036 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Experience is not always the kindest of teachers, but it is surely the best —Spanish Proverb © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................................ ix Editors .................................................................................................................................. xiii Contributors ........................................................................................................................... xv Chapter1 ElectricEnergySystems—AnOverview ............................................................. 1 IgnacioJ.Pérez-Arriaga,HughRudnick,andMichelRivierAbbad Chapter2 Steady-StateSingle-PhaseModelsofPowerSystemComponents ..................... 51 EdmundHandschin,AntonioF.Otero,andJoséCidrás Chapter3 LoadFlow ....................................................................................................... 95 AntonioGómez-ExpósitoandFernandoL.Alvarado Chapter4 StateEstimation ............................................................................................. 127 AntonioGómez-ExpósitoandAliAbur Chapter5 EconomicsofElectricityGeneration .............................................................. 165 FranciscoD.GalianaandAntonioJ.Conejo Chapter6 OptimalandSecureOperationofTransmissionSystems ................................. 211 JoséLuisMartínezRamosandVíctorHugoQuintana Chapter7 Three-PhaseLinearandNonlinearModelsofPowerSystemComponents ....... 265 EnriqueAchaandJulioUsaola Chapter8 FaultAnalysisandProtectionSystems ........................................................... 303 JoséCidrás,JoséF.Miñambres,andFernandoL.Alvarado Chapter9 FrequencyandVoltageControl ....................................................................... 355 GöranAndersson,CarlosÁlvarezBel,andClaudioCañizares Chapter10 Angle,Voltage,andFrequencyStability ......................................................... 401 ClaudioCañizares,LuisRouco,andGöranAndersson vii © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC viii Contents Chapter11 Three-PhasePowerFlowandHarmonicAnalysis ........................................... 461 WilsunXuandJulioGarcía-Mayordomo Chapter12 ElectromagneticTransientsAnalysis .............................................................. 509 JuanA.Martínez-VelascoandJoséR.Martí AppendixA SolutionofLinearEquationSystems ............................................................. 583 FernandoL.AlvaradoandAntonioGómez-Expósito AppendixB MathematicalProgramming .......................................................................... 601 AntonioJ.Conejo AppendixC DynamicModelsofElectricMachines .......................................................... 627 LuisRouco © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Foreword Thepurposeofthisbookistomerge,update,andextendthematerialinbothclassicalpowersystem analysisbooksandpowereconomicsbooks,withintheframeworkofcurrentlyrestructuredelectric energy systems. This effort is clearly needed to address the operations and planning problems in nowadaysunbundledgeneration,transmission,anddistributionsystems. Inaddressingtheaforementionedissues,werealizedthatthechallengesweresignificant.First of all, we had to provide added value to the reference books on the topic. Fortunately, achieving this goal was facilitated by the economic and technical revolution that the electric sector has been undergoingduringthelasttwodecades.Thisrevolutionhasdramaticallychangedormadeobsolete manyimportantconceptsastheyareconsideredinexistingbooks.Anotherdifferencebetweenthis and earlier books lies in the addition of some advanced chapters, which are usually covered in specializedmonographs,aswellasinthedeepertreatmentofcertainclassicaltopics. Thesecondandperhapsmoredifficultchallengewastheneedtoavoidanencyclopedicapproach, bothinscopeandcontent.Abookcoauthoredby24researchers,eachonewritingonhisownareaof expertise, caneasilydegenerateintoavoluminouscollectionofdisconnectedpapers, whichmight only be useful for a minority of specialists. Being aware of this risk, the authors have made a significantefforttobeginwiththebasicprinciples,payingattentiontothetopicsanypowerengineer shouldknow,includingmanysolvedexamples,anddirectingthereadertootherchaptersifnecessary. Someredundantmaterialhasbeenintentionallyleftoutinordernottodistractthereader’sattention bycrossreferencing.Anaddedadvantageoftheapproachusedhereisthatmanychaptersbecome self-sufficient for those readers with a certain background in power systems who simply desire to keepthemselvesupdated. Ourobjectivewastokeepthespectrumofreaderstowhomthisbookisdirectedfairlybroad.On theonehand,instructorsandundergraduatestudentsofengineeringschoolscanuseitasatextbook, withthematerialbeingpossiblyfullycoveredintwoterms.Dependingontheparticularcontext,the instructormayhavetopickuponlyasubsetofchapters,discardingthosethatarecoveredinother subjectsofthecurriculum.Thismaybethecaseofprotections,overvoltages,synchronousmachines, etc.Ontheotherhand,consideringtheadvancedlevelofcertainchapters,andtheinclusion,forthe first time in a textbook of this breadth and depth, of the regulatory issues, which are changing the electric sector, this volume can also serve as a handbook for graduate students and practicing professionalswholackthetimetosearchfororiginalsources(papersandtechnicalreports).These readerswillsurelywelcomethelargenumberofreferencesattheendofeachchapter, whichwill allowthemtoacquireadeeperknowledgeonthetopicsoftheirowninterest. It is assumed here that the reader has a minimum background in algebra (matrices, complex numbers,etc.),calculus(lineardifferentialequations,LaplaceandFouriertransform,etc.),physics (electromagneticfields,rotatingmassdynamics,etc.),circuits(nodalequations,three-phasecircuits, etc.) and, if possible, electric machines and microeconomics. This is usually the case of those undergraduatestudentswhoenrollforthefirsttimeinacourseonpowersystemanalysis. Owing to space limitations, the book is mainly focused on the operation of generation and transmission systems, although part of the material (e.g., certain component models, three-phase andharmonicloadflows,reliabilityindicesandprotections)isofapplicationalsointheanalysisof distributionnetworks.Forthesamereason,thelong-termplanningproblemhasnotbeenexplicitly dealtwith;nevertheless,severalchaptersandpartsofothers(e.g.,loadflow,generationscheduling, security, reliability, andstability)presentessentialtoolsfornetworkexpansionstudies, designand comparisonofalternatives,etc.,whicharedirectlylinkedwiththeshort-termplanningproblem. ix © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC x Foreword Thebookhasbeenorganizedin12chaptersand3appendices,whichcouldhavebeenarranged inseveralways.Apossibilitycouldhavebeentobeginwiththemostclassicalchapters(loadflow, frequency regulation, economic dispatch, short circuits, and transient stability), and then continue withwhatcouldbelabeledadvancedtopics(marketissues, stateestimation, electromagnetictran- sients, harmonics, etc.). However, it is difficult in many cases to place the division between basic andadvancedmaterialproperlyspeaking,particularlyinthosechaptersspecificallydealingwiththe operationofgenerationandtransmissionsystems.Theschemeadoptedinthisbookisbasedinstead onthedifferentworkingregimesofthepowersystem,whicharecrucialtodeterminethetechniques andtoolsneededtostudythetimescalesinvolved. Thefivechaptersfollowingtheintroductoryonecoverwhatisessentiallythebalancedsinusoidal steady-stateregime,which,rigorouslyspeaking,shouldbecalledquasi-steady-statebecauseofthe slowbutcontinuousvariationoftheloads.Inthiscontext,mainlyrelatedtothereal-timeoperation of power systems, phasors and complex power constitute the basic tools on which the different analyticalandcomputationalmethodsarebuilt.Ontheotherhand,thelastsixchaptersaredevoted tothetransientandnonsinusoidalstatesofapowersystem,includingbothbalancedandunbalanced conditions.Thesystemundertransientsoriginatedbyfaultsisfirstdealtwith,followedbytheslower electromechanicaloscillations,toendwiththefasterelectromagnetictransients. Chapter1makesanoriginalpresentationofwhatpowersystemshavebeeninthepastandwhat theyhavebecomenowadays,fromthetechnical,economicalandregulatorypointsofview.Itconsti- tutesbyitselfveryvaluablematerialtobedisseminatedamongthoseyoungstudentswhoerroneously believethatprofessionalchallengescanonlybefoundincomputerengineeringandcommunications. Besidesconventionalcomponents,Chapter2brieflydealswithcablesandasynchronousmachine modeling, of renewed interest in view of the growth of distributed generation. An introduction to loadforecastingtechniquesisalsopresented. In Chapter 3, which is devoted to the classic power flow or load flow problem, the section on large-scalesystems,complementedbyAppendixA,standsout.Thereadermayfindinterestingthe discussion about the simplifications behind the fast decoupled load flow. Power flow and voltage regulatingdevicesarepresented,startingfromacommonframework,inanoriginalmanner. Chapter4providesmanymoredetailsthanitisusualintextbooksaboutadvancedtopicsrelated tostateestimation,likenonquadraticestimatorsandtopologyerroridentification. Chapter5startswitharigorousandgeneraltreatmentoftheeconomicdispatchproblem,paying specialattentiontotransmissionlosscoefficients,andfinisheswiththeformulationoftheoptimiza- tionproblemscurrentlyfacedbyproducers,consumers,andotheragentsofelectricitymarkets. ThepresenceofChapter6, entirelydevotedtotheoperationofthetransmissionsubsystem, is newintextbooksofthisnature, butwebelieveitisfundamentaltoprovideacomprehensiveview of all the problems and tasks involved at this level. The new paradigm under which transmission networksareoperated,basedonopenandnondiscriminatoryaccess,andtheresultingchallengesare presentedanddiscussedinthischapter. The second part of the book starts with Chapter 7, which is devoted to a general treatment of three-phaselinearandnonlinearmodelsofpowersystemcomponents,includingpowerelectronics components,suchasfilters,voltage-sourceconverters,etc.Severalofthemodelsdescribedhereare usedinthefollowingchapters. Chapter8comprisestwocloselyrelatedsubjects,namelyfaultanalysis,includingabriefrefer- ence to grounding systems, and protections. More attention than usual is paid to the matrix-based systematicanalysisofshortcircuitsinlarge-scalesystems. Automatic regulation and control of voltages and frequency is dealt with in Chapter 9 from a broaderperspective,beginningwithlocalorprimarycontrolstrategiesandendingwiththeregion- wide secondary and tertiary control schemes. These controls and associated concepts, such as hierarchicalandwide-areacontrol,arepresentedanddiscussedwithinthecontextofpracticalgrid requirements in Europe and North America, and in view of their role in competitive electricity markets,particularlyinrelationtoancillaryservices. © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC