AAccttaa UUnniivveerrssiittaattiiss LLaappppoonniieennssiiss 337628 ISMAAirCj AK AKBöEnLEgNäGsA Elde”rE Aihbuänse l ianp rsuilr eael sa nodo uhrebramno Zjaa”m bia EtnografiInnteenr vtiuetwki-mstuuds yla wstietnh tcuonmnmeäulynsittäy pleäaivdäekrsotiarjessa AAkcaatedeemmiince dni svsäeirttöastkioirnja, joka Lapin yliotop ibsteo pnu ybhlticeliys kduenfetantdieetde iwdeitnh ttiheed epkeurmnnisasnio snuostumuksella esiteotfä tähne j Fualkciuseltsyt io tfa Srkoacsiatel Sttcaiveankcseis L aatp tihne y Ulionpivisetrosnit ylu oefn Ltaopslaalnisdsa 10 in lectmuraea lrioskoumu n3 o9.n p 1ä5iv Jäunnäe 2 2001188 k alot 1122 noon Supervisors: Professor. Merja Laitinen Professor. Marjaana Seppanen rovaniemi 2018 AAccttaa UUnniivveerrssiittaattiiss LLaappppoonniieennssiiss 337628 ISMAAirCj AK AKBöEnLEgNäGsA Elde”rE Aihbuänse l ianp rsuilr eael sa nodo uhrebramno Zjaa”m bia EtnografiInnteenr vtiuetwki-mstuuds yla wstietnh tcuonmnmeäulynsittäy pleäaivdäekrsotiarjessa Akateeminen väitöskirja, joka Lapin yliopiston yhteiskuntatieteiden tiedekunnan suostumuksella esitetään julkisesti tarkastettavaksi Lapin yliopiston luentosalissa 10 maaliskuun 9. päivänä 2018 klo 12 rovaniemi 2018 University of Lapland Faculty of Social Sciences © Isaac Kabelenga Layout: Essi Saloranta / Kronolia Cover: Miia Anttila Sales: Lapland University Press PL 8123 FI-96101 Rovaniemi Finland tel. +358 40 821 4242 publications@ulapland. www.ulapland./LUP University of Lapland Printing Centre, Rovaniemi 2018 Printed work: Acta Universitatis Lapponiensis 372 ISBN 978-952-337-075-3 ISSN 0788-7604 PDF: Acta electronica Universitatis Lapponiensis 239 ISBN 978-952-337-076-0 ISSN 1796-6310 Table of contents Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................7 Abstract ...........................................................................................................................................................9 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................11 1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................................11 1.2 Study aim and objectives ............................................................................................................13 1.3 Research questions .......................................................................................................................15 1.4 Structure of the thesis .................................................................................................................15 2 Review of existing literature on elder abuse ....................................................................17 2.1 Definitions, forms, prevalence and consequences of elder abuse .......................................17 2.2 Theoretical explanations of elder abuse ...................................................................................29 2.3 Measures proposed and used to address elder abuse .............................................................40 2.4 Literature review on elder abuse in Zambia ...........................................................................47 3 Research process ............................................................................................................................56 3.1 Social constructionism and qualitative approach as methodological commitments ....56 3.2 Data collection .............................................................................................................................59 3.2.1 Rural and Urban community as study sites ...............................................................59 3.2.2 Interviewees .....................................................................................................................63 3.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................79 3.4 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................................87 4 Views of community leaders about elder abuse .............................................................92 4.1 Elder people as victims of abuse ................................................................................................92 4.2 Elder abuse as a social issue ......................................................................................................112 4.2.1 Elder abuse as a social issue at local community levels ..........................................113 4.2.2 Elder abuse as a social issue at national level ...........................................................119 4.3 Factors that explain elder abuse in the two communities ..................................................121 5 Views of the community leaders on further actions against elder abuse ........140 5.1 Measures used to address elder abuse .....................................................................................140 5.2 Suggested ways to intervene in elder abuse...........................................................................154 6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................166 6.1 Summary of the major findings of the study ........................................................................166 6.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................174 6.2.1 Elder abuse as a global issue including local ways of knowing and doing .........174 6.2.2 Proposed Model of Elder Abuse in Zambia ............................................................189 6.2.3 Evaluation of the research ...........................................................................................193 6.2.4 Limitations of the Research Project..........................................................................197 6.2.5 Reflection on learning and personal developments through research ...............199 6.2.6 Ideas for further research.............................................................................................204 References .................................................................................................................................................210 Appendices ...............................................................................................................................................228 Appendix.1 Consent form ................................................................................................................228 Appendix.2 Study guide used in data collection ..........................................................................230 Appendix.3 Introductory letters used during fieldwork.............................................................234 Appendix.4 Abbreviations ................................................................................................................236 List of figures Figure 1 Ecological theory/model ....................................................................................................36 Figure 2 Marxist theory of violence against older people ............................................................38 Figure 3 Map of Zambia ......................................................................................................................47 Figure 4 Conceptual diagram of the overall analysis .....................................................................86 Figure 5 Meanings of elder abuse ....................................................................................................111 Figure 6 Factors that explain elder abuse ......................................................................................121 Figure 7 Measures used to address elder abuse .............................................................................141 Figure 8 Suggested ways to intervene in elder abuse ...................................................................154 Figure 9 Proposed model of elder abuse in Zambia ....................................................................192 Acknowledgements This work was made possible by the assistance and cooperation I received from various people. In light of this, I would like to extend special and sincere thanks to my supervisors, Prof. Merja Laitinen and Prof. Marjaana Seppanen for the guidance throughout my studies. This final product was made possible with their patient guidance and tireless efforts. They were so nice to me through out my academic journey. I thank you with my whole heart! Please keep afloat the excellent academic spirits and may God richly bless you for the wonderful support given to me! I am also thankful indeed to the pre-examiners – Prof. Mo Ray from University of Lincoln, United Kingdom and Dr. Helena Blomberg-Kroll from University of Helsinki, Finland for pre-examining my thesis. Special thanks go to Prof. Helena Blomberg- Kroll for willing to be my opponent during public defence of my dissertation. I would like also to say thank you to Prof. Tarja Orjasniemi at University of Lapland who did preliminary internal evaluation of my thesis. Minna Nousiainen also deserves my special thanks for all the administrative support that she gave to me during my studies. I am also grateful indeed to Miia Anttila for designing the cover of this book. Many thanks also go to Paula Kassinen for facilitating the organization and printing of this book. The Communications and External Relations at the University of Lapland deserves special thanks for the press release about this book. I am also thankful indeed to Lars Nooden and Satu, and Lars Otto among others for supporting the party to celebrate the completion of my studies. I also extend my heart-felt appreciations to my former supervisors for my masters’ degree – Prof. David Lewis and Dr. Armine Iskanian at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) who gave me a lot of informal support during my doctoral studies. I am also so grateful to the 31 informants in Zambia that comprise the basis of this research. They are the owners of the knowledge that have made me achieve the objectives of this study. This is your work, more than it is mine. I hope your knowledge will contribute to the well-being of humanity not only in Zambia but globally. I am also indebted to all the members of staff at the Faculty of Social Sciences, Librarians and the whole University of Lapland for the academic assistance throughout my studies. I am also grateful to all members of staff in the Department of Social Development Studies, School of Humanities and Social Sciences and the the whole University of Zambia for the support throughout my studies. I also appreciate whole-heartedly all my friends in Finland who made my stay in Finland enjoyable. Many thanks go to my church mates at Free Church and the English Bible Study Group who include Pekka and his wife Leila, Pekka and his wife Riita, Marni and his wife Maro, Jani and his wife, Matthias and his wife, Jarni, Eero and his wife Karol, Katri, Hellen, Ritu, Mongiwa, Lars, Mari, Heini, Abel, Marketa, Acknowledgements | 7 Richie, Jussi, Niilo, Jassim, Pasca, and Janina and her family, and DAS members of staff among others. My studies would not have been enjoyable without support from my family members in Zambia, in particular my mother Mrs. Lainess Kibenda Kabelenga, my wife Nachi Mutungwa Kabelenga, Uncle Kang’ongo, Auntie Kang’ongo and the whole Kang’ongo family, Uncle Roy Mulenga and his family, my sisters and brothers especially Eunice, Mrs. Leah Jimu Kanguya, Mrs. Mwabila and Aquila, my brother in-law Mr. Smart Kakumba and his family, my nephews Ignatius, Comfort and Isaac and his wife and my nieces Thelma and Gladys. In short, I am thankful to the whole extended family! I also wholeheartedly say thank you to my late father – Mr. Isaiah Kabelenga and my late elder sister – Mrs. Mirriam Kabelenga Lubambula who brought me up. I miss you greatly. May your souls rest in eternal peace of the Living God. I am also grateful indeed to all my Church mates at Chamba Valley Evangelical Church especially those who gave me spiritual and moral support during my studies. These include Rev. Benson Banda, Elder Njapau, Elder Kanguya, Elder Yung’ana, Elder Selemani, Brother Eric Sankalimba, Brother Kaluba, Brother Douglas Lubuwa and Brother Kajoba among others. Bishop Chinsembu, Rev. John Muyutu, Rev Evaristo Mambwe and Rev. Henry Mukonda also derserve my thanks for their prayers. May God richly bless you all! Furthermore, I gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance from Center for International Mobility (CIMO) - Finland and the University of Zambia. Your financial support realy lessened my financial stress during my studies. I also acknowledge the academic support from my late Dean – Dr. Bernett Siamwiza who supported me amazing in my studies. Above all, I am so grateful to the Living God Almighty for the protection, good body health and wisdom which He accorded unto me throughout my studies. It was not an easy task, but with the help of God, it was possible. Trully God Ebenezer – 1 Samuel 7:12 (God has helped me reach this far in my life)! 8 | Kabelenga: Elder Abuse in rural and urban Zambia Abstract The main aim of this study was to describe and understand elder abuse using the views of the community leaders involved in addressing elder abuse in rural and urban Zambia. By using social constructionism as the philosophical underpinning of the study, and qualitative research with 31 informants, the results indicate that elder abuse in both rural and urban Zambia is a multifaceted social problem. This is because it does not only negatively affect the abused elder people but also affects the perpetrators of elder abuse, the local communities where abuse takes place and the whole Zambia. It is socially constructed in seven main forms namely spiritual abuse, political abuse, verbal abuse, physical abuse, material abuse, sexual abuse and neglect. Interestingly is that all these types of abuse are inseperable.This is because they usually take place simultaneously. Thus, from this study, it is clear that most of the abused elder people in the two communities of Zambia simultaneously suffer more than one type of abuse. The study has also constructed new knowledges on various aspects of elder abuse which include characteristics of abused elder people, characteristics of perpetrators of elder abuse, consequences of elder abuse and measures which are effective and ineffective in the fight against elder abuse. With regard to the characteristics of the abused elder people and perpetrators of abuse, the current study has shown that there is no single category of elder people or perpetrators that can be single out to be the victims or to be behind elder abuse. Rather, a mixture of elder people suffers abuse. In the same vein, there is a mixture of perpetrators of elder abuse. This is because what determine elder abuse are the types of relationships that exist between the particular elder person and other members of society. If the relationship is poor, any elder person regardless of the socio-economic status can be abused. Equally, if the relationship is poor, any person regardless of the socio-economic status can participate in elder abuse. In terms of the consequences, the study has established that elder abuse has intended and unintended consequences which transcend the abused elder person and the abuser. This is because the effects of elder abuse are also felt by the Zambian government and other actors involved in the social development of Zambia. Coming to the measures, the study has shown that both formal and informal measures can be used to address elder abuse. Depending on how they are used, both types can be effective and/or ineffective in the fight against elder abuse. Based on the present results, the study concludes that despite the differences in ways of living in rural and urban Zambia, elder abuse has manifested itself in similar ways. However, how the informants socially constructed various dynamics of elder abuse is different in a number ways from what is documented in many scientific literatures on elder abuse. Thus, the study concludes also that elder abuse can be understood well using the knowledge of the local people who understand their local environments Abstract | 9