Egypt, Greece, and Rome egypt, greece, and rome Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean third edition charles freeman 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Charles Freeman 2014 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First edition published in hardback 1996 First paperback edition 1999 Second edition 2004 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. 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In memory of my mother Winefride (1914–2006) who scrambled up with me to the Iron Age fort on Wardlaw Hill, Dumfries, in August 1957 and so set off my fascination with the ancient world, and my father John Freeman (1913–86) who loved the Medi- terranean and its peoples. FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION By Oswyn Murray The first edition of this work came out in 1996, the second in 2004; it is a great pleasure to welcome its appearance in a third edition. Each time Charles Freeman has revised large sections of the work to take account of recent discoveries and new ideas, so that his book remains the best and most up-to-date survey of the history of the entire an- cient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern world. As I said in the prefaces to previous editions, Charles Freeman has tried to give a narrative account of the main events within each period, but also to highlight the de- velopments in cultural and social history, and to show something of the evidence on which his judgements are based. He has indicated where the evidence is uncertain, or where his interpretation may be controversial; but he has not avoided the responsi- bility of making decisions about the evidence in order to present a clear account. The aim of all of us who struggle to write in that most difficult of historical genres, the introduction to the study of a period, must always be to combine the current state of information with the excitement of new discoveries and encouragement to study the subject further. History aims at producing narratives and explanations, but it is the methods by which these aims are achieved that constitute the most interesting aspect of being a historian; and making historians is at least as important as writing history. For history is a creative activity that must be renewed in each generation: there will never be a fixed and final narrative, partly because our evidence is incomplete and growing all the time, and partly because our explanations of events and the ways they interconnect reflect our own interpretation of our present world, and so are always changing. As the philosopher and ancient historian R.G. Collingwood insisted, it is not the facts that are interesting in history, but the questions and their answers—and these can never be fixed. There is an intrinsic merit in the wide sweep of Freeman’s book that makes it stand out among its competitors. He has consulted the experts in each area of the ancient world: although he makes up his own mind and judiciously steers between the various hypotheses with which experts tend to play for the sake of argument, he is always in touch with the latest thinking in each area. And therefore, just as Fernand Braudel did a generation ago with his work on the Mediterranean and on world history, he re- minds us all, professionals and amateurs, of the importance of the wider perspective. The largest school for the study of ancient western history is no longer situated in Europe or North America, but at Nankai University, Tianjin in the People’s Republic of China. As Mediterranean and Near Eastern history find their place in world his- tory, and as the Far East begins to confront the history of the West, more than ever before Charles Freeman’s synthesis of specialist researches is needed to point the way forward for the next generation. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION The writer Callimachus, who flourished in Alexandria in the third century bc, was famed for his aphorisms of which one, mega biblion, mega kakon, ‘big book, big mis- take’, haunts me as I begin this preface. It may have been a dig at his literary rival Apollonius Rhodius for his large epic on Jason and the Argonauts but Callimachus, an elitist and refined writer in the later tradition of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, is right in suggesting that things can get out of hand. My defence is that the history of the ancient Mediterranean is a large subject and I feel that it needs to be taken gently if its values are to be appreciated. Luckily, I have got away with it so far and I am delighted that Oxford University Press has commissioned a third edition of Egypt, Greece and Rome. I have even been allowed an extra fifty pages which means that I have been able to restore the ‘legacy’ chapter at the end that was squeezed out in the second edition as well as add in other important developments in scholarship and archaeology since the last edition. The ten years since the appearance of the last edition have been ones in which I have been able to travel more widely in the Mediterranean (children leave home even- tually!) and run study tours to Italy and classical Greece and Turkey. I was also de- lighted to be asked in 2005 to be Historical Consultant to the revived Blue Guides, thirty-five years after I had written a letter to my parents from Delphi saying that it was taking me a long time to get round the site because I had been lent a Blue Guide that seemed to have something to say about every stone! This was the celebrated Stu- art Rossiter edition and I was moved to be asked to contribute to the seventh edition (2008). My experiences with the Blue Guides have made me think more deeply as to how to present the ancient world to travellers and resulted in my Sites of Antiquity: Fifty Sites that Explain the Classical World (Taunton, UK, 2009), which might be seen as a companion to this book. Egypt, Greece, and Rome remains what it has always been, an introductory but com- prehensive text for the general reader and those students who need a foundation before going further. No one can be unaware of the enormous interest in ancient history at a popular level but increasing specialization and the rise of ‘companion’ volumes of essays means that it is increasingly difficult to find a full overview in one place. I hope that by keeping these three major civilizations together in one volume, together with other im- portant but lesser-known ones, I have created a book that can not only be read as a whole but used to fill in gaps and relate events and periods to each other. I have put in new material, rewritten several chapters completely, broken up one or two chapters, and added one or two extra ‘interludes’. General further reading recommendations are now grouped at the back with more specific recommendations linked in to the text. I have also taken the opportunity to completely revise the illustrations. I hope that this will sustain the work for a further ten years. Charles Freeman December 2013 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Egypt, Greece and Rome was conceived in 1994 as a result of a recommendation by Oswyn Murray, with whom I had been working on another classics project, to Hilary O’Shea, head of the Classics Department of Oxford University Press. Now, twenty years on, Oswyn Murray is still at hand to provide another Foreword and Hilary is still, if only just, before retirement, in her same role at OUP. I thank them both for their continued support. I am sure that the high reputation that the OUP Classics Department enjoys in the international academic community had done much to sus- tain the survival of this book into yet another edition. Hilary allowed me ‘not more than fifty extra pages’ for this edition but her staff generously failed to measure the text I sent in and I have to admit to having gone rather further than this—the word checker announced a final total of 345,000 words! Oswyn has also provided me with news of exciting new developments, both archaeological and textual, that I have also been able to squeeze into the text. The first edition of this book owed much to a team of advisers and I would like to repeat, yet again, my thanks to these: Averil Cameron, John Drinkwater, Amélie Kuhrt, John Ray, John Rich, Nigel Spivey, and Ruth Whitehouse. Paul Cartledge, John Ray, and Michael Scott have provided ideas and information for the new edition and Paul Cartledge and Alan Lloyd have read large parts of the text and contributed many helpful comments. Both felt able to provide endorsements and I must thank Paul in particular for his consistent support not only of myself but others who work on the ancient world outside the walls of academia. Michael Scott and Richard Miles, both of whose work in presenting documentaries on the ancient world I much admire, were also kind enough to provide endorsements. Those who entrust themselves to my Mediterranean tours allow me to travel much more widely and often around the sites. Long may they continue to sign up and pro- vide their own insights into the civilizations we explore. Annabel Barber and Tom Howells at the Blue Guides have forced me to think how to describe the historical background of important sites to an educated audience and, as I have said in my Preface, it is moving to be involved so closely, as Historical Consultant, with a series I first encountered ‘in the field’ forty-five years ago. This new edition was taken in hand at OUP by Taryn Das Neves and, when she left to return to South Africa, by Annie Rose and Kizzy Taylor-Richelieu. They have done an extraordinary job in keeping a very complex project in good order and it has been a pleasure to see it evolve into book form. Edwin (again!) and Jackie Pritchard pro- vided firm but judicious copy-editing and the final proofreading was done by Carolyn McAndrew. Tracking down and assembling pictures was a major project in itself as I wanted to rethink many of the illustrations. Fo Orbell succeeded in tracking down almost everything with impressive competence, Annie Rose kept it all together in acknowledgements | ix beautifully organized folders, and Jonathan Bargus completed the final page design. Many thanks to all. In the last edition I reported that my mother was still able in her eighty-ninth year to visit the Anglo-Saxon site of Sutton Hoo with me. Alas, time finally caught up with her and she will not see this new edition but it remains dedicated to my parents who, from their own very different approaches to the romance of the past, first got me reading and exploring these fascinating civilizations.