Efficient Management of Wastewater Its Treatment and Reuse in Water-Scarce Countries Ismail Al Baz • Ralf Otterpohl • Claudia Wendland Editors Efficient Management of Wastewater Its Treatment and Reuse in Water-Scarce Countries Ismail Al Baz Ralf Otterpohl InWEnt, Internationale Weiterbildung und Institute of Wastewater Management Entwicklung gGmbH and Water Protection Capacity Building International, Hamburg University of Technology Germany (TUHH) P.O.Box 941408 Eißendorfer Str. 42 Amman 11194 21071 Hamburg Jordan Germany [email protected] [email protected] Claudia Wendland Institute of Wastewater Management and Water Protection Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH) Eißendorfer Str. 42 21071 Hamburg Germany [email protected] This book has been produced with the financial support of the European Union under the MEDA Water Programme Initiative, the views expressed herein are those of the authors and can therefore in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Commission. ISBN 978-3-540-74491-7 e-ISBN 978-3-540-74492-4 Library of Congress Control Number: 2007933074 © 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, roadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Printed on acid-free paper 5 4 3 2 1 0 springer.com Editors Ismail Al Baz Ismail Al Baz is currently the project director of the EMWater project in Amman, Jordan with focus on the developing of policy guide lines for wastewater treatment and reuse in the countries Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Turkey. He joined InWEnt Capacity Building International Germany as senior project manger for water resources management from 1992 until now. From 1988 to 1992 he worked at the Free University of Berlin in Germany as a research scientist and as lecturer for water and wastewater biology. From 1984 to 1988 he worked in Amman, Jordan at the Royal Scientific Society and conducted research work on the water quality of Jordan. His background is water and soil microbiology and he graduated in 1980 at the university of Oldenburg/ Germany and received his Ph.D. in biology in 1984 from the Free University of Berlin in Germany. Ralf Otterpohl Ralf Otterpohl is full University Professor and Director of the Institute of Wastewater Management and Water Protection at Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH) with focus on Resource oriented Sanitation / Ecological Sanitation. The insti- tute is involved in applied research of innovative water systems, especially in Middle and Eastern Europe and Africa. He is a civil engineer with specialisation on water management and did a doctorate on mathematical modelling and computer simulation of wastewater treatment plants. He co-founded the consultancy Otterwasser in Lübeck that is spe- cialised in computer simulation and innovative wastewater concepts. He is chair of the IWA (International Water Association) specialist group ‘Resources oriented Sanitation’, member of several professionals groups and committees and co-editor of the journal Water Science & Technology and invited speaker on numerous con- ferences. His teaching includes the international MSc Environmental Engineering in English at TUHH. Claudia Wendland Claudia Wendland is research fellow at the Institute of Wastewater Management and Water Protection at Hamburg University of Technology, since 2002. Her research area is anaerobic digestion of wastewater within water and nutrient reuse concepts. Before she worked as project engineer in a Public Water Association in the field of sewage sludge management and lecturer at Lübeck University of Applied Sciences. As project manager in the EUfunded EMWater project, Claudia Wendland has been involved in all project activities and was responsible for the online trainings (e-learning), one regional training, planning of the Turkish pilot plant and development of this book. Preface Water in the MEDA region is a crucial issue, with regard to the availability of renew- able water resources in the MEDA countries most will face even more serious prob- lems in the management of their limited water resources in the near future. This will require a lot of efforts to be made for more efficient management of water, in order to secure the economic and social development of the coming generations. According to the FAO (2006) the average of renewable water resources in the MENA region is below the limit of 1000 CM per Capita and Year, for Egypt for example is this 794 CM, for Algeria und Tunisia 481 CM, for Jordan 180, Yemen 234, and Palestine 100 which are far below the limit of 500 CM that classify these countries as the most water stressed countries worldwide. The alarming aspect is the fact that the limited renewable available water resources development have been decreasing in the last thirty years, between 1974 – 2000 we had 66% decrease for Jordan and 64 % for Yemen, due to the increasing population growth and the increase of water demands for agriculture, industrial and domestic use. These figures underline the importance of the topics of this book that shall give help to experts and decision makers to over come the future water resources problems in the region. Water reuse plays an important role in water management as the domestic waste- water streams are mostly independent from dry and wet seasons and can be consid- ered as a relatively fixed amount of available resource throughout the year. If we look at the example of wastewater treatment in the western European countries, where water scarcity is mostly not a major issue, the centralized water borne sanitation systems have contributed to ensuring public health without doubt. Their implementation were a major step in improving living conditions in growing cities about 100 years ago. However, today we realize that this system is not the best available principle for the next decades or even centuries especially not for water scarce regions. Reasons are: ● Drinking water is wasted for transportation of faeces and urine, a relatively high flow is needed only to keep sewers functional ● Central wastewater treatment is more complex and costly than necessary, esp. high energy costs and is often not where reuse is possible ● Sewerage of centralized systems is very costly in construction, rehabilitation and maintenance vii viii Preface ● Nutrients are only partly removed and lost as fertilizer ● Problems of sludge disposal Within the last decades, many technologies in the field of wastewater management such as systems like different sewerage for wastewater collection and hybrid sys- tem, UASB or products by many companies for treatment were developed for spe- cial applications and frame conditions that the variety is difficult to overview. However, wastewater treatment is not just a black box that can be easily copied and implemented in any case. As every area, town, village has its own properties and conditions, there is no unique solution possible. Each region, area, town or village needs a tailor made solution for wastewater management. The systems and tech- nologies are developed but must be adapted to the local conditions. Wastewater treatment touches all parts of society that it is very important to consider it from the beginning in regional planning. Within the regional planning, the following priorities should be considered from the beginning: 1. Wastewater flows can be reduced by demand side management. Efficient usage of water can be achieved such as public awareness for water efficient house installations and water saving toilets and efficient drip irrigation. 2. Rainwater should be harvested where appropriate and possible. 3. To avoid the dilution of pollutants in the wastewater, heavily polluted industrial effluents should be treated and reused separately. 4. When selecting the wastewater system, central, communal or decentral solutions must be considered and compared with dynamic cost comparison. Based on these considerations, the best option for wastewater collection, treatment and reuse can be evaluated. The decision behind the publication of this book came after a successfully con- ducted conference within the activities of the EU funded EMWater project in Jordan in autumn 2006.. The EMWater regional conference has had very good response, with more than 150 participants and 60 papers from 17 different countries from the EU – MEDA region, from Australia and the USA. The best papers presented in the EMWater regional conference are being published in this book. The EU funded EMWater Project “Efficient Management of Wastewater, its Treatment and Reuse in the MEDA Countries” started in May 2003 with 9 dif- ferent partners from MEDA and the EU. The EMWater project consortium con- sists of four EU partners – InWEnt Capacity Building International, Germany, Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Germany, Adelphi Research, Germany and the National Agency for New Technology, Energy & Environment (ENEA), Italy – and five Mediterranean partners – YILDIZ Technical University, Turkey, University of Balamand, Lebanon, Lebanese American University, Lebanon, Al al Bayt University, Jordan and Birzeit University, Palestine The EMWater project is focusing through its different activities on the aspects of wastewater treatment and water reuse. Preface ix During the last 4-year EMWater project program that conducted in the region, the following activities have been implemented:- 1 Data collection and evaluation of wastewater situation in the target countries: Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Turkey. 2 Production of public awareness programs in Arabic, Turkish and English. 3 Conduction of Capacity building programs through local, regional and web based training courses; more than 1300 participants from the region have been trained. 4 Design and construction of 5 pilot plants for demonstration and research purposes 5 Elaboration of EMWater guide for wastewater treatment and water reuse 6 Publication of trainer tool kits for experts and trainer who work in the field of wastewater treatment and water reuse Some of the authors of this book are covering the aspects of water and sludge reuse and the positive impact on soil and plants production. The benefit of integrated anaerobic and aerobic wastewater treatment which reduce energy consumption, operation costs and increase treatment efficiency, is recommended by other authors as a sustainable treatment option for the Middle East countries. Case studies for sustainable sanitation by using constructed wetlands, cost ben- efit analyses for centralized and decentralized systems to support decision makers, the benefit of using bio membrane reactors technology to get high performance for variable wastewater treatment characteristics, were also included in this book. Other important topics like social and economic aspects of water reuse, the community participation, culture relation, water value, global climate change and water scarcity, were included in the book too. The new recently published WHO Guidelines for safe wastewater use in agricul- ture were evaluated by other authors who give decision makers practical guidance how to apply these new guide lines. The pond system as an efficient, natural and adequate wasterwater technique was also recommended, and finally the aspects of improved wastewater treatment by using constructed wetlands by applying earth worms and alternative plants were highlighted by some other authors. The authors in this book are well known experts in the field of wastewater treat- ment and water reuse. Through their papers published in this book, we hope that an essential contribution will be made towards solving the current and future water stress problems in the MEDA region. As editors, we want the readers to have a look at the various aspects of waste- water management and water reuse, to consider innovative technologies as well as innovative low-tech based on traditional systems of the region and to aim at their tailor-made solution appropriate for the local situation. Contents 1 The 2006 WHO Guidelines for Wastewater and Greywater Use in Agriculture: A Practical Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Duncan Mara and Annika Kramer 2 EMWater Guide and Recommendations on Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Julika Post, Luigi Petta, Annika Kramer, and Ismail Al Baz 3 Integrated Wastewater Management: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Bassim Abbassi and Ismail Al Baz 4 Egyptian Effl uent Standards for Treated Sewage: Evaluation and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 T.A. Elmitwalli, A. Al-Sarawey, and M.F. El-Sherbiny 5 Groundwater Contamination as Affected by Long-Term Sewage Irrigation in Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Hussein I. Abdel-Shafy, Khaireya A. Guindi, and Nevien S. Tawfik 6 Effl uent and Sludge Management in Yemen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 J.E. Hall and R. Ebaid 7 Fate of Pathogens In Tomato Plants and Soil Irrigated With Secondary Treated Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Maha Halalsheh, Lina Abu Ghunmi, Nivin Al-Alami, and Manar Fayyad xi xii Contents 8 Alleviation of Salinity Stress Imposed on Broad Bean (Vicia faba) Plants Irrigated With Reclaimed Wastewater Mixed With Brackish Water Through Exogenous Application of Jasmonic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Nesreen Mansour, Ziad Mimi, and Jamil Harb 9 Response of Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf) Cultivar Acsad 1107 to Sewage Sludge Amendment Under a Semi-Arid Climate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 L. Tamrabet, H. Bouzerzour, M. Kribaa, and M. Makhlouf 10 Waste Stabilization Ponds: A Highly Appropriate Wastewater Treatment Technology for Mediterranean Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Duncan Mara 11 Sustainable Sanitation by Constructed Wetlands in the Mediterranean Countries: Experiences in Small/Medium-Size Communities and Tourism Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Fabio Masi, Giulio Conte, and Nicola Martinuzzi 12 Effect of Depth on the Performance of Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment Ponds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Ashraf A. Isayed and Omar R. Zimmo 13 Adapting High-rate Anaerobic Treatment to Middle East Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Nidal Mahmoud, Grietje Zeeman, and Jules B. van Lier 14 Options for Improving the Effectiveness and Potentials for a Sustainable Resource Recovery in Constructed Wetlands. . . . . . . . . . 163 Nathasith Chiarawatchai and Ralf Otterpohl 15 Integrated Anaerobic–Aerobic Treatment of Concentrated Sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Maha Halalsheh and Claudia Wendland 16 Aerobic and Anaerobic Biotreatment of Olive Oil Mill Wastewater in Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Faud Hashwa and Elias Mhanna Contents xiii 17 Cost-Effi ciency in Water Management Through Demand Side Management and Integrated Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Ralf Otterpohl 18 The LooLoop-Process: The First “Waterless” Flushing Toilet . . . . . . 215 U. Braun, B. Lindner, T. Lohmann, J. Behrendt, and R. Otterpohl 19 Contribution of Sewage Sludge to the Fertility of the Soil and the Growth of Barley (Hordium Vulgare L) Variety Jaidor. . . . . . . . . . . . 227 S. Boudjabi, M. Kribaa, and L. Tamrabet 20 The Use of a Pilot-Scale Membrane Bioreactor in Treating Domestic Wastewater with Variable Characteristics for Potential Water Reuse on a University Campus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 N.O. Yigit, I. Harman, G. Civelekoglu,H. Koseoglu, N. Cicek, L. Yilmaz, R. Arviv, and M. Kitis 21 Socioeconomic Aspects of Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Bahman Sheikh 22 Cost–Benefi t Analysis for Centralized and Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (Case Study in Surabaya-Indonesia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Maria Prihandrijanti, Almy Malisie, and Ralf Otterpohl 23 Sustainable Community Water Project Implementation in Jordan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Samira Smirat, Stan Benjamin, and Noel Keough 24 Waste Water Reuse for Agriculture Pilot Project at the Jordan University of Science and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Ziad Al-Ghazawi, Jumah Amayreh, Laith Rousan, and Amal Hijazi Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299