Effective Forms of Environmental Diplomacy T his book holistically covers the issue of environmental diplomacy by building a firm foundation for readers to understand the different dimensions of the topic. T he book begins by exploring the progress the world community has made in understanding the importance of diplomacy in preserving the environment for humankind’s survival, peace, and security. Then, it critically analyses the existing system of international environmental treaties and highlights its political and legal gaps. It further examines specific case studies on multilateral diplomacy as well as both formal and informal diplomacy in cases from Europe and the United States to evaluate the diplomatic models followed by different stakeholders in the field. Through this case study analysis, the book develops theoretical and empirical frameworks that can be applied to study how international and regional organisations and NGOs maintain and put forward environmental agendas at an international level. It also examines the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment to highlight the challenges to reach an effective and equitable environmental governance and draw conclusions around effective versus ineffective forms and tools of environmental diplomacy. T his book will be of great interest to students and scholars of environmental diplomacy and environmental law and governance, as well as practitioners working in this important field. L eila Nicolas, PhD, is Professor of International Relations at the Lebanese University in Beirut and Lebanese Army Staff and Command Academy. She is the founder of the NGO “Lebanese for Democracy and Good Governance” and has 21 years of civil society experience in conflict resolution, peace-building, justice, and the rule of law. As a MENA expert, Dr. Nicolas writes weekly political articles and serves as an expert commentator for several media outlets. She is an author of eight Arabic books on contemporary international relations, Great Powers’ politics, and grand strategies and MENA politics. Her book, T he Arab World in Transition: The Rough Road to Justice, was published in 2020. E lie Kallab is Deputy Project Lead for the Local Pathways Fellowship at UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network-Youth. He is a graduate and member committee of research and valorisation for the Oeil sur la Cite blog for Sciences Po Aix (Institute of Political Studies) in France. Elie has Master’s degree in Conflict Management and Humanitarian Action from the University of Siena in Italy. He is equally a member of the steering committee for a research school on mobilisation and gender; CORMED. Elie has co-authored a book chapter in Harness It: Renewable Energy Technologies and Project Development Models Transforming the Grid. Routledge Focus on Environment and Sustainability Post-Pandemic Sustainable Tourism Management The New Reality of Managing Ethical and Responsible Tourism Tony O’Rourke and Marko Koščak Consumption Corridors Living a Good Life within Sustainable Limits Doris Fuchs, Marlyne Sahakian, Tobias Gumbert, Antonietta Di Giulio, Michael Maniates, Sylvia Lorek and Antonia Graf The Ecological Constitution Reframing Environmental Law Lynda Collins Effective Forms of Environmental Diplomacy Leila Nicolas and Elie Kallab Coastal Wetlands Restoration Public Perception and Community Development Edited by Hiromi Yamashita Sustainability in High-Excellence Italian Food and Wine Laura Onofri Learning to Live with Climate Change From Anxiety to Transformation Blanche Verlie For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge-Focus-on-Environment-and-Sustainability/book-series/RFES Effective Forms of Environmental Diplomacy Leila Nicolas and Elie Kallab F irst published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN a nd by Routledge 6 05 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 R outledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Leila Nicolas and Elie Kallab T he right of Leila Nicolas and Elie Kallab to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. A ll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. T rademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. B ritish Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library L ibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Nicolas, Leila, author. | Kallab, Elie, author. Title: Effective forms of environmental diplomacy / Leila Nicolas and Elie Kallab. Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Series: Routledge focus on environment and sustainability | Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: LCSH: Environmental protection—International cooperation. | Environmental policy—International cooperation. | Environmental law, International. Classification: LCC HC79.E5 N465 2022 (print) | LCC HC79.E5 (ebook) | DDC 363.7/056—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021012347 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021012348 ISBN: 978-0-367-47163-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-06966-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-03386-8 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents List of case studies vi Acknowledgements vii List of abbreviations viii 1 Environmental diplomacy evolution: an introduction 1 2 Legal and political dimensions of International Environmental Law 12 3 Environmental issues at international and regional levels: informal diplomacy 25 4 Towards a more effective environmental governance 40 5 Conclusion: the need for environmental diplomats 55 Index 60 Case studies 4.1 COVID-19 pandemic and the environment: opportunities amid disasters Tatiana Rahbany 41 4.2 Multilateral diplomacy: forest conservation 51 5.1 Environmental diplomacy through technical training at US embassies Michael Ginsberg 55 Acknowledgements W e want to express our gratitude to all our colleagues and friends who reviewed, gave comments, shared their views and insights, and remained directly or indirectly with us in our journey to complete this book. Special thanks to Andrea Gallinal Arias and Guillemette Lano, for their input to the Chapter 3 of the book. We would also thank Routledge team for their patience and relentless support. W e particularly want to thank Tatiana Rahbany and Michael Ginsberg for sharing their expertise and for their generous contribution by adding exten- sive knowledge to this book through their insightful case studies. Abbreviations CFC Chlorofluorocarbons CSD United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development EEB European Environmental Bureau ENGO Environmental non-governmental organisation IEL International Environmental Law IGO International governmental organization IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MDG Millennium Development Goals NGO Non-governmental organization UNCED United Nation Conference on Environment and Development UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCSD United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development UNEP United Nations Environment Program UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNSDSN United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WHO World Health Organization 1 Environmental diplomacy evolution An introduction Diplomacy States have practised diplomacy since the formation of the first city-states and even earlier than that. The Greek word “diploma” is the origin of diplomacy. In the eighteenth century, the French language adopted the word “d iplo- mate ” referring to a statesman authorised to negotiate and deal with other states (F reeman & Marks, 2018) . Later on, the word “diplomacy” spread to all languages, and now it merely refers to “the profession, activity, or skill of managing international relations, typically by a state’s representatives abroad” ( Oxford University Press, 2018 ). Diplomacy has always evolved and advanced, conforming to the emerging needs of states. Traditional diplomacy Some would describe the institution of diplomacy as “old as history itself” ( Sen, 1965 ). Usually, diplomats enrol in negotiations to preserve peace- ful and cooperative relations between states and sometimes avoid hostili- ties. The Greeks initially developed the basis of the European tradition of diplomacy. Europeans inherited the practice and developed it. The Romans adopted the early form of diplomacy to satisfy imperial administration needs, establishing a department for foreign affairs for the first time in history ( Freeman & Marks, 2018 ). Spain set a precedent by sending a permanent representative to the Court of England in 1487, which became the interna- tional standard norm later on. The first to professionally train diplomats were the Byzantines, who were coached into espionage and collecting infor- mation. These diplomatic customs lived long after the Byzantine Empire’s downfall ( Freeman & Marks, 2018 ). Following the Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church added new practices, such as “plenipotentiaries” who had been given the discretionary