% 4 w a Contents Edward R. Wierenga The Nature of God Acknowledgments An Inquiry into Divine Attributes xi Introduction I 1 Divine Attributes 2 Some Metaphysical Assumptions 6 3 Modality 7 4 Possible Worlds, Essential Properties, and Essences 9 eerrneReecenee n ne arme en e eer OT 1 Omnipotence 12 “1 The Problem 12 2 Conditions on Omnipotence 14 3 Initial Segments and Strong Actualization 18 4 A Definition of Omnipotence 25 5 Two Objections 27 6 The Paradox of the Stone 29 7 Atemporal Omnipotence 33 : : Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London 2 Omniscience t 6 | 1 Defining Omniscience 36 ; 2 Some Complications 38 Contents Contents { ix 3 Incorrigibility and Essential Omniscience 39 4 Some Objections 183 4 De Dicto et De Re 4l 5 An Alternative Account of Omniscience 186 5 De Reet De Se 46 6 Divine Action and Immutability 191 6 Some Objections 53 7 Divine Goodness and Impeccability 202 3 Fo1 rFeokrneokwnloewdlgeed,g e Farnede FWrielel , Wialnl d t5h9 e Necessity of the Past 59 1 Perfectly Good 202 2 Goodness and Omnipotence 204 2 Foreknowledge and Accidental Necessity 64 3 Goodness and Freedom 207 3 The Assumption Restated 71 4 Impeccability and Praiseworthiness 211 4 Freedom and the Ability to Do Otherwise 74 4 Accidental Necessity 8 The Source of Moral Obligation 213 86 1 God and Morality 213 1 Foreknowledge and Fatalism 86 2 The Divine Command Theory 215 2 Accidental Necessity go 3 Another Formal Approach 100 3 Divine Commands and Divine Will 217 4 Some Objections 219 4 A Final Formal Approach 104 5 Utilitarianism and the Divine Command Theory 232 5 Accidental Necessity and Ability 108 6 Conclusion 235 6 Incompatibilism and Divine Timelessness 113 5 Omniscience, Free Will, and Middle Knowledge 116 Index 237 1 Middle Knowledge 116 2 Creation, Actualization, and Providence 119 Copyright © 1989 by Cornell University 3 Evil and the Free Will Defense 126 4 The Doctrine of Middle Knowledge 133 All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this one 5 The No Grounds Objection 140 or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without 6 Acting out of Character 143 permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address 7 The Not True Soon Enough Objection 148 Cornell University Press, 124 Roberts Place, Ithaca, New York 14850. 8 Another No Grounds Objection 150 First published 1989 by Cornell University Press. 9 Alternatives to Middle Knowledge 160 International Standard Book Number 0-8014-2212-4 6 Eternity, Timelessness, and Immutability 166 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 88-47929 1 Eternity, Timelessness, and Immutability 166 Printed in the United States of America 2 Some Reservations 172 3 Temporal Indexicals and Immutability 175 Librarians: Librarya ppoefa rCso ngorn estsh e claatsatl opgaigneg oifn ftohre mabtoiookn. The paper in this book is acid-free and meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. xii | Acknowledgments and Linda Zagzebski. I am grateful to all of these colleagues. Richard Feldman deserves special mention: he has had to read every draft, and philosophical discussion and collaboration with him has long been a source ofi nsight and pleasure. Chapter 1 derives from “Omnipotence Defined,” Philosophy and Acknowledgments Phenomenological Research 43 (1983):363-375. Chapter 8 incorporates material from “A Defensible Divine Command Theory,” Nots 17 (1983):387—407, and “Utilitarianism and the Divine Command The- ory,” American Philosophical Quarterly 21 (1984):311-318. A paper including some paragraphs from Chapters 2 and 6 has appeared as “Omniscience and Knowledge De Se et De Praesenti,” in David Austin, ed., Philosophical Analysis: A Defense by Example (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1988), pp. 251-258. I am grateful to the editors of these journals and to Kluwer Academic Publishers for permission to in- clude this material. I am glad to have the opportunity to acknowledge my indebted- Finally, I thank John G. Ackerman and Roger Haydon of Cornell ness to the friends, colleagues, and institutions whose help and sup- port have significantly contributed to the existence and improve- University Press for their help in bringing this book to publication. ment of this book. Thanks are due to Alvin Plantinga for several reasons, but in the Epwarp R. WIgRENGA first place for his example and influence. His writings have always Rochester, New York seemed to me to be a model of philosophical insight and clarity. I refer to, borrow from, or discuss his work in nearly every chapter. This project was conceived during the term of a Mellon Faculty Fellowship provided by the University of Rochester in 1984. Much of the research and writing was accomplished during the tenure of a Distinguished Scholar Fellowship granted by the Center for Phi- losophy of Religion of the University of Notre Dame in 1986-87. I am grateful to these institutions for their support and to the mem- bers of the Center and its director, Alvin Plantinga, for their hospi- tality and intellectual stimulation. Thanks also go to my chairman, William Scott Green, who has supported my requests for leave and arranged for favorable teaching schedules. William P. Alston, the editor of the series in which this book appears, made many suggestions that resulted in improvements, as did an anonymous reader for Cornell University Press. Others who commented on all or parts of the manuscript include Earl Conee, Richard Feldman, Thomas Flint, Alvin Plantinga, Philip Quinn, Introduction c SeS: A E_ .:: ITneIo o 1. Divine Attributes EEE x Western theism, despite great diversity both within and among the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, understands God to be, among other things, supremely wise, powerful, and good. Theistic thought on the nature of God derives from several distinct sources which, nevertheless, manifest broad agreement. These sources—scriptural, experiential, and philosophical—concur in at- tributing wisdom, power, and goodness to God. With somewhat i less universality, they also ascribe eternity, immutability, timeless- ness, and other attributes to God. It is only natural, therefore, that philosophical reflection on the nature of God has focused on the same attributes. The aim of this book is to evaluate and extend this philosophical reflection. Thus far I have referred to western theism generally, to what Philip Quinn has called—perhaps with a note of disparagement— “generic theism.”! My own interest and training, however, are pri- marily in Christian theism. Thus, the historical references I cite are mainly to the work of Christian authors. But I hope that this does CORNELL STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION not limit the interest of what follows only to Christians or only to those who take an interest in the “philosophical credentials of the 1. Philip L. Quinn, “Original Sin in Anselm and Kant” (unpublished). 2 | Introduction Introduction [ 3 Christian faith”; for, as I have suggested, Christianity and theism God has implanted in all men a certain understanding of his divine generally agree on many of the attributes of God. majesty.”* Calvin adds that this understanding typically issues in Let us briefly consider some of the sources of views on the nature worship. It may not be beyond controversy that all people are in- of God. No doubt the primary source is scriptural. The Bible, of stinctively aware of divinity, as Calvin suggests, but it is certainly course, ascribes a great many properties to God, some of which, true that many people find themselves with the conviction that there though of utmost religious significance, are presumably not part of is a higher being, a being who is worthy of worship. Reflection on God’s nature.? Christianity places great emphasis on such claims as what is involved in being worthy of worship can lead to views that God is the Creator of every contingent thing, that he takes an about God’s nature, for no being is worthy of worship unless that interest in his creation, that he desires his creatures to be in a right being is supremely excellent. relationship with him, that he has a plan for redeeming his creation An interesting proposal in this connection comes not from some- and restoring the relationship with human beings their sinfulness one convinced of God’s existence but from someone who was en- has destroyed, and that he will grant eternal life with him to those deavoring to prove that God does not exist. J. N. Findlay writes: whom he redeems. But these statements are not usually taken as claims about God’s nature, perhaps because God could have been Not only is it contrary to the demands and claims inherent in re- different in these respects; he need not have created the world and its ligious attitudes that their object should exist “accidentally”: it is also inhabitants, or he might not have taken an interest in such creatures, contrary to those demands that it should possess its various excellences or he might have left them in their misery after they had rebelled in some merely adventitious manner. It would be quite unsatisfactory from the religious standpoint, if an object merely happened to be wise, against him. good, powerful, and so forth, even to a superlative degree, and if The biblical writers also ascribe to God various attributes that are other beings had, as a mere matter off act, derived their excellences from usually taken to be part of his nature. Here is just a small sampling. this single source. An object of this sort would doubtless deserve God is often described as almighty (e.g., Job 32:8, Ps. 91:1) and his respect and admiration, and other quasi-religious attitudes, but it knowledge as unlimited: “God is greater than our conscience and would not deserve the utter self-abandonment peculiar to the re- ligious frame of mind.5 knows all” (1 John 3:20; cf. Ps. 139, Luke 12:6—7). In addition, God is good:—“for the Lord is good and his love is everlasting, his constancy endures to all generations” (Ps. 100:5; cf. Luke 18:19)— Thus, Findlay suggests that a being who is worthy of worship will and the source of “every perfect gift” (James 1:17). not merely be omnipotent, omniscient, and so forth but will have these attributes essentially.© Another source of ideas about God is human experience and re- flection on it. John Calvin, for example, held that “there is within Another source of ideas about God’s nature is philosophical. the human mind, and indeed by natural instinct, an awareness of Some philosophers have given arguments for the existence of a divinity [divinitatis sensum]. This we take to be beyond controversy. To prevent anyone from taking refuge in the pretense of ignorance, 4. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 1, 3, 1, ed. John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1960), p. 43. I am construing Calvin as holding that the awareness of divinity manifests itself in finding oneself to have either the 2. Compare Hendrikus Berkhof: “Many of the attributes which are usually belief that God exists or some other belief, say, that God has created the world, regarded as uniquely divine are definitely not the ones that impress themselves upon which self-evidently entails that God exists. By thus emphasizing the experience of us first in the revelational encounters.” He adds, however, that the attributes we are one’s religious convictions and inclinations I do not mean, of course, to deny the studying are “the presuppositions or consequences of such experiences.” Berkhof, existence or the value of a more passionate or mystical religious experience. Christian Faith, trans. Sierd Woudstra, (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1979), p. 5. J. N. Findlay, “Can God’s Existence Be Disproved?” in New Essays in Philo- 114 (translation of Christelijk Geloof [1973]). sophical Theology, ed. Antony Flew and Alasdair MacIntyre (London: SCM Press, 3. Unless indicated, all scriptural passages are quoted from the New English 1955), p. 48. Bible. 6. I briefly characterize essential properties in Section 4 below. 4 | Introduction Introduction [5 being they take to be God, and these arguments demand that the is better to be than not to be.” In this way Anselm concluded that being in question possess certain features. For example, Aquinas God is supremely good, just, happy, perceptive, omnipotent, mer- begins the first part of the Summa Theologica with his famous “Five ciful, and impassible.? Ways” of proving God’s existence; these include arguments for the Conceiving of God as a perfect being need not require starting existence of a first mover and a first cause. In the subsequent discus- with the Ontological Argument; the idea may also grow out of sion of God’s nature, Aquinas makes frequent appeals to what a first reflection on religious experience. We saw above how what Calvin mover or a first cause must be like in order to justify his claims that described as an instinctive sense of divinity can give rise to the belief God is, for example, simple, perfect, immutable, and eternal. that there is a being who is worthy of worship. Reflection on what Leibniz, too, held that there must be a reason or a cause of the such a being is like might also lead to the conclusion that God is world, and he concluded that perfect. That is, in thinking about what is involved in being worthy of worship, we may be led “to ponder [God’s] nature, and how this cause must be intelligent: for this existing world being contingent completely perfect are his righteousness, wisdom, and power.”!° and an infinity of other worlds being equally possible, and holding, I have cited these various sources of ideas about God’s nature not so to say, equal claim to existence with it, the cause of the world must because I mean to endorse them all as equally legitimate. Rather, I needs have had regard or reference to all these possible worlds in order to fix upon one of them. This regard or relation of an existent want to make the point that, despite such a variety of approaches, substance to simple possibilities can be nothing other than the under- there is substantial agreement about a cluster of divine attributes, standing which has the ideas of them, while to fix upon one of them including (but not limited to) omniscience, omnipotence, and per- can be nothing other than the act of will which chooses. It is the power fect goodness. But the ascription of these properties to God gives of this substance that renders its will efficacious. Power relates to rise to numerous questions. To take just one example, what does it being, wisdom or intelligence to truth, and will to good. And this mean to say that God is all-powerful? Are there any limits to what intelligent cause ought to be infinite in all ways, and absolutely per- an omnipotent being can do? Some philosophers have even claimed fect in power, in wisdom and in goodness, since it relates to all that is possible.” that the concept of omnipotence is incoherent, so that it is not so much as possible that a being be omnipotent. Progress on these So Leibniz thought that the existence of a first cause required the issues will require our coming to a better understanding of what existence of a being that is omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly omnipotence amounts to and investigating philosophical objections good.8 to the coherence of the concept. A second philosophical source of views about the nature of God My approach to the topic of the divine attributes begins by look- derives from the claim that God is a perfect being or that, in An- ing at what such classical theists as Augustine, Anselm, and Aquinas selm’s phrase, he is a being “than which a greater cannot be con- have had to say about the nature of God. I thus concur with Leibniz, ceived.” As Anselm employed this idea in his Proslogion, he first who wrote that “the meditations of the theologians and philoso- presented the Ontological Argument, which was supposed to estab- phers called Scholastics are not to be totally despised.”!! I shall lish the existence of such a being. He then ascribed various proper- endeavor to provide an account of some of the divine attributes by ties to God, often appealing to the premiss that “God is whatever it 9. Anselm, Proslogion V-VI. The quotation is from St. Anselm’s Proslogion, 7. Leibniz, Theodicy, 1, 7, ed. Diogenes Allen, trans. E. M. Huggard (Indi- trans. M. J. Charlesworth (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979, p. anapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), pp. 34-35. 121. For an exuberant defense oft he importance of this idea, see Thomas V. Morris, 8. Cf. Leibniz’s remark that God’s “GoopNEss prompted him antecedently to “Perfect Being Theology,” Nofis 21 (1987):19—30. create and to produce all possible good; but that his wispom made the choice and 10. Calvin, Institutes, I, 1, 2. caused him to select the best consequently; and finally that his POwER gave him the 11. From Leibniz’s summary oft he Discourse in a letter to the landgrave Ernst von means to carry out actually the great design which he had formed.” Ibid., II, 117 (p. Hessen-Rheinfels, 1-11 February 1686, in The Leibniz-Arnaud Correspondence, ed. 73). and trans. H. T. Mason (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1967), p. 5. 6 | Introduction Introduction [7 trying, in the first place, to state in contemporary terms what these there are even impossible properties, though, of course, nothing authors have said about them. This will require, I believe, making could have them. generous use of the insights of recent philosophy. Some of the more I shall also assume that there are states of affairs, objects typically technical ideas to which I shall appeal are introduced in the balance expressed in English by such gerundial nominalizations as Socrates’ of this chapter. Then, I examine whether the ascription of these being wise, Kant’s having written the “Critique of Pure Reason,” or There attributes to God can be defended against recent philosophical ob- being unicorns. All states of affairs exist, but only some of them occur jections. In short, my aim is to find historically adequate and philo- or obtain. In the list just given, the first two obtain, but the third sophically defensible formulations of claims about the nature of does not.15 In Chapter 1 I argue that omnipotence is best thought of God. by reference to the ability to bring about certain states of affairs, and I suggest in Chapter 8 that the moral categories of obligation, per- missibility, and wrongness may be understood in terms of the obli- 2. Some Metaphysical Assumptions gation, permissibility, and wrongness of bringing about states of affairs. This is a book about the divine attributes, and since attributes are properties, | assume that there are properties. Examples (in addition Closely related to states of affairs are propositions. Thus, corre- to the divine attributes of omnipotence and omniscience) include, sponding to the state of affairs of Socrates’ being wise is the proposi- for instance, such familiar items as being a person, being red, and tion that Socrates is wise. According to Roderick Chisholm the having six legs, as well as such more recondite objects as being unmar- correspondence is identity, !© but even if the relation is not as close as ried ifa bachelor, being believed by Plato to be wise, and being identical to identity, it is certainly intimate. Propositions are typically thought Socrates. Some properties, for example, being red or having written the to be the bearers of truth value as well as the objects of belief. We “Critique of Pure Reason,” are exemplified. Other properties, such as shall see, when we consider omniscience in Chapter 2, that whether being a unicorn or having read the “Critique of Pure Reason” in a single propositions are the only objects of belief is an interesting question. sitting, are, as far as | know, not exemplified, but they could have We shall also consider, in connection with our discussion of omni- been. One might suppose, then, that a property is something that is science and eternity in Chapter 6, the issue of whether propositions possibly exemplified,! ? but that would be a mistake. To see this, we have their truth values eternally—whether, that is, they are always need to introduce some additional assumptions. First, correspond- true if they ever are. ing to each property is its complement, a property exemplified just in case the first is not.'* And for any two properties there is a 3. Modality property which is the conjunction of those properties, a property exemplified just by those things which exemplify both of the origi- Some propositions are true and some are false; among those that nal properties. It follows that for any property P, there is the prop- are true, some must be true, whereas others could have been false. erty P & not-P, a property that cannot possibly be exemplified. !* So in case the property of being F is such that S directly attributes it to S (The First 12. Cf. Roderick M. Chisholm, The First Person (Minneapolis: University of Person, p. 28). But surely a person can believe that he has a property that, as it turns Minnesota Press, 1981), p. 6. out, is impossible. For example, S might believe that he has squared the circle or that 13. Exception: if self-exemplification is a property, then on pain of generating a he has proved that there are finitely many prime numbers. Then, according to version of the Russell paradox, non-self-exemplification is not. Chisholm’s, view there must be such properties as having squared the circle and having 14. Chisholm would not be convinced by this argument, since he denies the proved that there are finitely many primes, but these properties are impossible. conjunction principle that for any two properties there is a property which is their 15. For a fuller presentation of this view, see Roderick M. Chisholm, Person and conjunction. There is an alternative argument ad hominem against Chisholm for the Object (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1976), chap. 4. conclusion that there are impossible properties. According to Chisholm, belief con- 16. See ibid., pp. 122-123. Strictly, Chisholm holds that propositions comprise a subset of states of affairs. sists in the self-attribution of properties: a person S believes that he himself is F just 8 | Introduction Introduction [ 9 (Among those that are false, some must be false, whereas others 4. Possible Worlds, Essential Properties, and Essences could have been true.) Propositions that have to be true include It is helpful to think about possibility and necessity in terms of propositions of arithmetic (2 + 2 = 4) and logic (For any propositions possible worlds. We can approach this topic by noting that a propo- p and q, if p is true and q is true then the conjunction of p & q is true), as sition is necessarily true just in case there is no way things could go well as various conceptual truths (Anything known to be true is true). A or could have gone according to which it would have been false. distinguished tradition holds that God exists belongs in this last Thus, no matter how things had been different, it would still have category. been true, for example, that two plus two equals four or that any- Propositions that, though true, could have been false include such thing known to be true is true. Similarly, a proposition is possibly items as Reagan is the fortieth President of the United States, There are true (false) just in case there is a way things could have gone which is people, and Leeuwarden is the capital of Friesland. Propositions that such that if they had gone that way, the proposition would have have to be true are necessarily true, and propositions that are true but been true (false). Thus, the proposition that Leeuwarden is the capi- could have been false (or are false but could have true) are contingent tal of Friesland is possibly false, since there is a way—in fact, many (possibly true and possibly false). And those propositions which ways—things could have gone according to which it would have could not have been true are necessarily false or impossible. The kind been false. For example, the Frisians could have centered their gov- of necessity involved here is often called broadly logical or metaphysi- ernment in Sneek or Makkum or another of their fine dorps, and if cal necessity.17 they had, the proposition that Leeuwarden is the capital of Friesland One fascinating feature of the philosophy of religion is that it would have been false. usually involves issues from other areas of philosophy; advances in Now a possible world may be thought of as a complete way things the philosophy of religion always seem to require solutions to prob- could have gone. The easiest way to grasp this idea is to think first lems in metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of language, or about everything that is in fact the case (including what has hap- philosophical logic. In recent philosophy of religion there is no pened and what will happen)—a complete way things can go, since more outstanding example of this phenomenon than the difference it is the complete way things are going. Now imagine something made by a better understanding of the modal notions of necessity having been different. Suppose Walter Mondale had won the 1984 and possibility and their kin for progress on the Ontological Argu- U.S. presidential election. Then the proposition that Ronald Reagan ment for God’s existence and on the problem of evil.!8 I exploit won reelection in 1984 would have been false. In that case, countless recent developments in various areas of philosophy in my investiga- other things would have been different as well. Many newspapers tion of the divine attributes, and since modal concepts figure promi- have described Reagan as president; if Mondale had won the 1984 nently in this project, it will be worthwhile discussing them further. election, these newspapers would have printed different articles. Readers familiar with these concepts may wish to skip to the next The proposition that the president spends a great deal of time with chapter. Nancy Reagan was true in 1986; if Mondale had won the election, that proposition would then have been false. So if we imagine a way 17. So called in what is essential reading on this topic, Alvin Plantinga’s The in which things could have been different, and then we consider all Nature of Necessity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974). Leibniz had used the of the other things that would be changed in those circumstances, phrase “the truths whose necessity is logical, metaphysical, or geometrical,” in “Preliminary Dissertation on the Conformity of Faith with Reason,” 2, Theodicy (p. what we have conceived is a complete way things could be; and that 10), is just a possible world. Of course we are not able to specify another 18. See Alvin Plantinga The Nature of Necessity, chaps. 9, 10, as well as God, possible world in all its intricate detail, but we can be confident that Freedom, and Evil (1974; rpt. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1977). On the on- if, for example, it could have happened that Mondale won the 1984 tological argument see also David Lewis, “Anselm and Actuality,” Nos 4 election, then there is some complete way things could have gone in (1970):175—88. 10 | Introduction Introduction [ 11 which he won the election. Among the various complete ways true in every possible world, and possible propositions are true in at things could go, as we have noted, is the way things really are least one possible world. (A proposition is true in a possible world if going; that possible world is the actual world.19 and only if the world includes the state of affairs of that proposi- The concept of a possible world may be given a more rigorous tion’s being true, that is, if it is not possible for that world to obtain presentation. We have just been speaking of propositions that could or be actual without that proposition being true.) have been true. Given the correspondence noted above between Two related ideas, both of which can be explained by reference to propositions and states of affairs, we could also speak of states of possible worlds, will also be useful. First, if an individual could not affairs that could have obtained. This is perhaps a better way of lack a certain property, then that individual has the property essen- thinking about these matters, because what is a way things could be tially. More precisely, an object has a property essentially just in case if it is not a state of affairs that could obtain? Now we need some the object could not exist without having that property, that is, just technical terms. One state of affairs includes another just in case the in case the object has that property in every world in which it exists. first could not obtain without the second obtaining as well. And one (An object has a property in a world provided the world includes the state of affairs precludes another just in case it is not possible that they object’s having that property.) If an individual has a property but both obtain. Finally, a state ofaf fairs S is maximal just in case for any does not have it essentially, the individual has it accidentally. Among state of affairs S’, S either includes S’ or precludes S’. A possible the properties that individuals have essentially, some are trivially world, then, is a maximal state of affairs that is possible.?° essential, that is, everything has them essentially. Everything is ei- We began this section by observing that a proposition is necessary ther red or nonred, and everything is unmarried if a bachelor. But (or necessarily true) just in case there is no way that things could go individuals can have some properties essentially that not everything according to which it would be false, and a proposition is possible has. Ronald Reagan, for example, has the property of being a person (or possibly true) just in case there is a way things could go accord- essentially; the White House does not have this property at all. ing to which it would be true. We may now put this point by Second, an individual essence of a thing is a property that thing has explicit reference to possible worlds. Necessary propositions are essentially and nothing else could have at all. More precisely, an essence of an individual x is a property E which is such that (i) x has 19. In an interesting passage in his Studies in Words (Cambridge: Cambridge E in every possible world in which x exists and (ii) there is no University Press, 1960), C. S. Lewis suggests that the word ‘world’ has what I mean possible world in which an individual y distinct from x has E. For by ‘the actual world’ as one ofi ts senses. Lewis distinguishes two senses of‘ world,’ which he calls ‘World A’ and ‘World B’. He then writes: “Another way of putting it example, being identical to Reagan is an essence of Reagan. (Being would be that, just as World B is the Region that includes all other regions, so World identical to Reagan does not require being named “Reagan”; ob- A is the State of Affairs which includes all states of affairs; the over-all human viously Reagan could have had a different name.) situation, hence the common lot, the way things go. Things or life would often We shall have several occasions to employ these concepts. In the translate it” (p. 222). Quoted by Peter van Inwagen in “Two Concepts of Possible Worlds,” in Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XI, ed. Peter French, Theodore Uehling, next chapter, I claim that what an individual’s essential properties Jr., and Howard Wettstein, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), p. are places constraints on what the individual must be able to do in 2ul, order to be omnipotent. And the concept of an individual essence 20. This is the view of possible worlds presented in The Nature of Necessity. To will be utilized in Chapters 2 and 6 to develop some views about the accommodate the fact that some states ofaf fairs, say, Socrates’ walking, occur at some times but not others, Plantinga modifies his account as follows. First, a temporally objects of knowledge and the nature of omniscience. invariant state of affairs is one that, necessarily, either always occurs or never occurs. Then a possible world is a possible state of affairs that is temporally invariant and maximal with respect to temporally invariant states of affairs. See Alvin Plantinga, “Self-Profile,” in Alvin Plantinga, ed. James Tomberlin and Peter van Inwagen, (Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1985), esp. pp. 90-91. I am heavily indebted throughout this section to Plantinga’s work. Omnipotence [ 13 ible with being omnipotent is not restricted to the Christian tradi- tion. The tenth-century Jewish philosopher Saadiah ben Joseph spoke of “those absurdities that cannot be attributed to divine om- nipotence, such as the bringing back of yesterday and causing the number five to be more than ten.”* And in the twelfth century Omnipotence Moses Maimonides wrote, “that which is impossible has a perma- nent and constant property, which is not the result of some agent, and cannot in any way change, and consequently we do not ascribe to God the power of doing what is impossible. No thinking man denies the truth of this maxim; none ignore [sic] it, but such as have no idea of Logic. . . . It is impossible that God should produce a being like Himself, or annihilate, corporify, or change himself. The power of God is not assumed to extend to any of these impos- sibilities. ””5 The diversity of inabilities allegedly compatible with being om- nipotent may seem to make the giving ofa clear account of omnipo- 1. The Problem tence a hopeless task. As Peter Geach puts it, “When people have Theists typically hold that God is almighty or all-powerful, that, tried to read into ‘God can do everything’ a signification not of in some sense, he is able do anything. But theists are usually quick Pious Intention but of Philosophical Truth, they have only landed to add that there are many things God cannot do. For example, themselves in intractable problems and hopeless confusions; no graspable sense has ever been given to this sentence that did not lead Augustine claims that God is unable to die or be deceived, and he to self-contradiction or at least to conclusions manifestly untenable concludes that “it is precisely because He is omnipotent that for Him from the Christian point of view.” Geach’s animadversions not- some things are impossible.”! Anselm adds that God “cannot be corrupted, or tell lies, or make the true into the false (such as to withstanding, I think it is possible to give a coherent account of omnipotence without landing in hopeless confusions. My strategy is undo what has been done).”? And Aquinas gives a lengthy list of to begin by categorizing some of the limitations on ability that are things God cannot do, including moving, failing, tiring, making the past not to have been, making himself not to be, and making what compatible with being omnipotent. I then introduce two technical concepts, and in terms of them I formulate a definition of omnipo- he did not foreknow that he would make. tence. Finally, I show that this definition accords with my initial list Moreover, holding that various limitations on ability are compat- 4. Saadiah ben Joseph, The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, Treatise VII (variant), 1. Augustine, City of God, V, 10, trans. Gerald Walsh et al., ed. Vernon Bourke chap. 1, trans. Samuel Rosenblatt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948), p. (Garden City, N.Y.: Image Books, 1958), p. 109. 412. Cf. Introductory Treatise, chap. 5, p. 25. 2. Anselm, Proslogion, VII, trans. M. J.C harlesworth (Notre Dame: University 5. Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed, Pt. 1, chap. 15, trans. M. Friedlander of Notre Dame Press, 1979), p. 1979. (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1904), p. 279. 3. Aquinas, Summa contra gentiles, 1, 2, 25. Compare the list offered by an early 6. Peter Geach, Providence and Evil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, twentieth-century Dutch theologian: “Scripture . . . teaches that there are certain 1977), p. 4. The quotation is from chap. 1, previously published as “Omnipotence,” things which God cannot do: he cannot lie, he cannot repent, he cannot change, he Philosophy 48 (1973):7-20. Chap. 2 was previously published as “An Irrelevance of cannot be tempted with evil.” Herman Bavinck, The Doctrine of God trans. and ed. _ Omnipotence,” Philosophy 48 (1973):327-333. Richard LaCroix has also recently William Hendriksen (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1951), p. 244 (translation of argued that it is impossible to define omnipotence. See his “The Impossibility of Gereformeerde Dogmatiek, vol. 2, 3d ed., 1918). Defining ‘Omnipotence,’” Philosophical Studies 32 (1977):181-190.