Educational Psychology W i n d o w s o n C l a s s r o o m s G l o b a l E d i t i o n T e n t h E d i t i o n Paul Eggen University of North Florida Don Kauchak University of Utah Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 1 24/08/15 1:49 PM Vice President and Editorial Director: Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Jeffery W. Johnston Trudy Kimber Vice President and Publisher: Kevin M. 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Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change. Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2016 The rights of Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms, 10th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-354948-5, by Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak, published by Pearson Education © 2016. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC 1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN-10: 1-292-10756-1 ISBN-13: 978-1-292-10756-1 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typeset by Cenveo® Publisher Services Printed and bound by Vivar, Malaysia A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 2 24/08/15 1:49 PM To Judy and Kathy, teachers who have changed many lives. A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 3 24/08/15 1:49 PM 4 About the Authors Paul Eggen Paul has worked in higher education for nearly 40 years. He is a consultant for public schools and colleges in his university service area and has provided support to teachers in 12 states. Paul has also worked with teachers in international schools in 23 countries in Africa, South Asia, the Middle East, Central America, South America, and Europe. He has published several articles in national journals, is the co-author or co-editor of six other books, and presents regularly at national and international conferences. Paul is strongly committed to public education. His wife is a middle school teacher in a public school, and his two children are graduates of public schools and state universities. Don Kauchak Don has taught and worked in schools and in higher education in nine states for over 40 years. He has published in a number of scholarly journals, including the Journal of Educa- tional Research, Journal of Experimental Education, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Teaching and Teacher Education, Phi Delta Kappan, and Educational Leadership. In addition to this text, he has co-authored or co-edited six other books on education. He has also been a principal investigator on federal and state grants examining teacher development and evaluation practices, and presents regularly at the American Educational Research Associa- tion. He currently volunteer-tutors first, second, and third graders in a local elementary school. These students have taught him a lot about educational psychology. A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 4 24/08/15 1:49 PM 5 Preface Welcome to the tenth edition of Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. We have redoubled our efforts to make this edition the clearest, most comprehensive, and up-to-date presentation of theory and research, combined with the most specific and usable applica- tions, of any text in the field. Our text is generally recognized as the most applied in educa- tional psychology, and in this edition we’ve tried to achieve the optimal balance of theory, research, and application. To meet this goal we have much that is new to this edition. We outline these changes in the sections that follow. Content New to This Edition To provide students with the most complete and up-to-date information on recent develop- ments in educational psychology, we have included the following new content in our tenth edition. • Major reorganization of the learning section of the book—Chapters 6–9: Learning is at the heart of educational psychology, and we’ve reorganized these chapters to reflect recent developments in our understanding of how students in classrooms, and people of all ages, learn. • Analyzing Theories: Research in every field is grounded in theory, but all theories have both strengths and weaknesses. “Analyzing Theories,” a new feature in this edition, analyzes all the major theories discussed in the text. For instance, Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development are analyzed in Chapter 2, behaviorism and social cognitive theory are analyzed in Chapter 6, and constructivism is analyzed in Chapter 9. This analysis includes a summary of the major concepts within each theory, together with the contributions the theories make to our understanding of teaching and learning and common criticisms directed at each. We believe the addition of this feature will provide students with a more complete and accurate view of the theoretical foundation of educational psychology. • New chapter—Knowledge Construction in Social Contexts: Educational psychology generally accepts the idea that learners construct their own knowledge and that learning is substantively a social process. This new chapter reflects and integrates these ideas in a comprehensive presentation that explains how these powerful ideas influence teaching and learning. • Extensive coverage of the learning sciences: The learning sciences focus on learning as it exists in real-world settings and how teachers can facilitate that learning. This is the essential message of our text, and this new content explains how to apply these ideas to increase learning for all students. • Expanded coverage of technology’s impact on learning: To say that technology is an integral part of our lives is a vast understatement. Expanded coverage of technology throughout the text examines how it influences learning, development, and motivation, in addition to the general impact it is having on the way we live. • Greatly expanded coverage of neuroscience: Neuroscience is providing researchers, educational leaders, teachers, and students with new insights into the teaching– learning process. As one powerful example, the concept of neuroplasticity helps us understand that our learning potential is much greater than we once believed possible, and with the right kinds of experiences, we can literally get smarter. This A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 5 24/08/15 1:49 PM 6 • Preface expanded coverage helps teachers capitalize on this information to increase learning for all students regardless of their backgrounds. • Extensive coverage of the role of personality and emotion on learning and development: Learning and development consist of much more than cognitive processes alone; personality and emotion play an important role in our motivation and how effectively we learn and develop. Further, both home and school environments have an important impact on the healthy development of learners’ personalities and emotions. This coverage helps teachers create the kinds of environments that capitalize on these insights. • Updated descriptions of standards, accountability, and value-added teacher assessment and how they impact teaching and learning: Standards—including the Common Core State Standards—combined with accountability, are facts of teaching life, and our discussion of these topics in this edition, including the controversies involved with each, is designed to prepare teachers to adapt to this new reality. This new content adds to our expanded and detailed descriptions of traditional theo- ries combined with the latest research. Our goal is to make the content presented in this text the most comprehensive and up-to-date discussion of learning, development, motiva- tion, instruction and classroom management, classroom and standardized assessment, and learner diversity of any text in the field. Applications New to This Edition The content of educational psychology isn’t useful if teachers don’t know how to apply it to increase their students’ learning and shape their development. To prepare teachers for the real world, and to help all students understand how educational psychology applies to their lives today, we have again redoubled our efforts to improve what is already the most applied educational psychology text in the field. The following applications are new to this edition: • Explicit suggestions for applying educational psychology in teaching: Instructors of- ten tell us that their students can describe the theories and research that make up educational psychology, but these same students “don’t know what to do with the content” when they go out into the real world of teaching. We attempt to solve this problem in this edition. Each chapter now includes specific sections titled “Educational Psychology and Teaching,” which provide teachers with specific and concrete suggestions for applying the content of each chapter in their teach- ing. For instance, in Chapter 2, “Educational Psychology and Teaching: Applying Piaget’s Theory with Your Students” provides teachers with specific suggestions for using Piaget’s theory to advance their students’ development, and a similar section does the same with Vygotsky’s theory. As another example, in Chapter 4, “Educational Psychology and Teaching: Teaching Students in Your Classes Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse” provides specific suggestions for ac- commodating and capitalizing on the diversity that our students are increasingly bringing to our classes. These suggestions are combined with concrete illustra- tions of teachers in the real world demonstrating these applications. “Educational Psychology and Teaching” sections are included in every chapter in the text. • Case studies linked to standards: Standards have become a part of teachers’ lives in today’s classrooms. Case studies that introduce each chapter in the book are now linked to standards so prospective teachers can now see how their colleagues in the real world have adjusted to this new reality and have incorporated standards into their instruction. A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 6 24/08/15 1:49 PM Preface • 7 • Case studies in both written and video formats: In the etext version of this edition, students can read case studies embedded in the text and can now see in video form the very lesson on which the case study is based. So they can read the case studies, and then with a simple click of their mouse see the actual lesson and how the teacher in the lesson applies the content of educational psychology to the real world of classrooms. No other text in the field applies the content of educational psychology to classrooms in this way. • Ed Psych and You: This feature, which first appeared in our ninth edition, has been expanded to help students see that educational psychology applies not only to teaching but also to our lives as we live them every day. This feature is also designed to make the content of educational psychology more meaningful to students who may not plan to be teachers. These new applications, combined with other features such as “Classroom Connec- tions” and “Developmentally Appropriate Practice,” make this edition even more usable in the real world of teaching. Further, we would like to believe that the text can be a resource for both new and veteran teachers as they move through their careers. The Most Applied Educational Psychology Book in the Field This is the most applied text in the field. The following illustrate these applications. Educational Psychology and Teaching: Explicit Suggestions for Applying Educational Psy- Applying Information Processing and the chology in Teaching. “Educational Psychology and Model of Human Memory with Your Students Teaching,” which appears in every chapter, provides teach- ers with specific suggestions for applying the content of Applying your understanding of information processing and the model of human memory educational psychology to increase learning for all their in your teaching can increase learning for all your students. Guidelines for applying this information in your teaching are outlined below and discussed in the sections that follow. students. The excerpt you see here appears on page 320 of • Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions Chapter 7 in the text. • Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences • Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content • Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load • Capitalize on meaningful encoding strategies • Model and encourage metacognition The guidelines overlap and interact with each other. We will see how as we discuss each. CONDUCTREVIEWS TO ACTIVATE SCHEMAS AND CHECK PERCEPTIONS To begin this section let’s return to Mike’s Thursday lesson before he had his students work in their groups. He begins, “What were we talking about yesterday? . . . Alexandria?” “. . . Figurative language . . . and figures of speech,” Alexandria responds hesitantly. A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 7 24/08/15 1:49 PM 8 • Preface Ed Psych and You. This feature helps students see Ed Psych and You how educational psychology applies to our lives and Are you bothered when something doesn’t make sense? Do you want, and even expect, the world to be predictable? Are you more comfortable in classes the people around us. The example you see here where the instructor specifies the requirements, outlines the grading practices, appears on page 66 in Chapter 2 of the text. and consistently follows through? For most people, the answer to these questions is “Yes.” Why do you think this is the case? The students in this case are third graders, and their teacher, Alicia Evans, is work- Case Studies Linked to Standards. The case studies ing with them on Common Core State Standard CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1f “Ensure that appear in this edition are now linked to standards. subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement” (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014f). The excerpt you see here appears on page 379–380 in After completing her routines for the beginning of language arts, Alicia explains Chapter 9 of the text. and demonstrates the rules with some examples on the board. She then displays the following short paragraph on her document camera. Bill takes his lunch to the cafeteria when it’s time to eat. His friend Leroy and his other friend Antonio (takes, take) (his, theirs) to the cafeteria, too. Each of the boys has (his, their) own lunch box with pictures of cars on (it, them). Bill doesn’t like apples, so he will give his to anyone else if (he, they) (wants, want) it. “Now,” she directs, “Read the paragraph carefully, . . . think about it, and then decide which one of the words in the parentheses in each case is correct. Remember, our reasons and thinking are as important as the actual answers.” After giving the students a couple minutes to study the paragraph, she begins, “How about the first one?” pointing to the first set of parentheses (takes, take) in the paragraph. The students conclude that “take” is correct in the sentence because “Leroy and Antonio” is a plural subject, so it requires the plural verb “take.” They also conclude that “theirs” is correct in the sentence because “theirs” agrees with its antecedent (Leroy and Antonio). “Now, how about this one?” she asks, pointing to the next set of parentheses (his, their) in the third sentence—Each of the boys has (his, their) own lunch box with pic- tures of cars on (it, them). “What do you think, and why do you think so . . . Brittany?” A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 8 24/08/15 1:49 PM Preface • 9 Classroom Connections Classroom Connections at Elementary, Middle School, and High School Levels. These features in each Capitalizing on Students’ Needs to Increase Motivation in Classrooms chapter offer suggestions and illustrations for applying top- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ■ Elementary: A ics discussed in the chapter at different grade levels. Each 1.Maslow described people’s needs in a hierarchy with deficiency fteoaucrhtehr -grhaodldes needs—survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem—preceding the periodic class meetings in which she encourages students to offer strategy is illustrated with a classroom example, derived ginr oinwstthru ncetieodns a. nAdd idnr ethses wstauyd yeonuts ’in dteerfiacciet nwciyth a sntdu dgeronwtst.h needs both suggestions for improving the classroom environment. ■ Middle School: A prealgebra teacher returns all tests and quizzes from teachers’ experiences in elementary, middle, and high ■ Eevleemryeonneta aryn:d A p frooumrtoht-eg raa dseen tseea cohfe br eclaolnlsg oinng a inll shtiusd celnastss rtooo inmv.o Hlvee tHhee cfoollmowminegn tds afrye aqnude ndtilsyc ouns ssetsu dfreenqtuse’ nctolyn mtinisusaellyd ipmropbrolevmings isnk dillest.ail. makes them feel safe by helping them respond correctly when schools. The example you see here appears on page 427 of they are unable to answer. ■ tHoi gidhe Snctifhyo sopl:e Icni fiac s aimrcuhlaetoiolong, iac awl oervldid heinsctoer yfo ter ascitheesr tahsakts r estpurdeseenntst ■ Middle School: To help meet learners’ belonging needs, a sev- different civilizations. She comments that the students’ ability to Chapter 10 of the text. eton tihn-tgrordaduec et eaa cnheewr agsirkl st otw oot hoef rt hsetu mdeonrets p oanpdu lator gtiarlkse i nh heer ru cnladsesr link evidence to conclusions has improved significantly. their wings until she gets acquainted. 4.Learners’ needs for relatedness are met when teachers communi- ■ High School: To address learners’ growth needs, an American cate a commitment to students both as people and as learners. government teacher brings in a newspaper columnist’s political ■ Elementary: A first-grade teacher greets her students each morn- opinion piece, comments that it was interesting to her, and asks ing at the door with a hug, “high five,” or handshake. She tells students for their opinions on the issue. them what a good day they’re going to have. Learners’ Needs for Self-Determination ■ Middle School: A seventh-grade teacher calls a parent to express concern about a student whose behavior and attitude seems to 2.Self-determination theory suggests that people have innate needs have changed. wfiinnogchr r eelcneao assmrtinnupigdne getcn etotnasmcs sekpu,se c ttacehuenatecto,de n.,wo hmaenynd, caeonmmdp phlreaetsleaizdtee, d cntahenes sspe.r oDavciedcseoi gmenvp idlcisehhnamclleee nnfgots-r ■ htaHhbeieglopyhu s ct Seothscmseheiioor niopnsle : f raosAfrot eengrxae stlo rclamivh ehoesetor llyap o n,t ndes ahMtcehoh eaneirldsr h oaion yep sane tncsh o rfuouorurrba gtaghhnee Ts sf hucsuthtuurosrdeode.la ncytsos. n tWdou htcaetlnks ■ Elementary: A fifth-grade teacher drops an ice cube into a cup of water and a second cube into a cup of alcohol and asks them Learners’ Needs to Preserve Self-Worth wethfhfinoykr tiisnt gufl.onatilt sth ieny osnoelv ea nthde s pinrokbs leinm t haen do tthheenr. pHrea isgeusid tehse mst ufodre tnhtesir’ 5.ESmelfp-whaosritzhe tthheaot rayb siluitgyg ceasnts b teh aintc preeoaspeled liwnkit hs eelfff-owrot.rth to high ability. ■ icMnogimd “dpmlreeo nbStlces mhoon oo fhl :to hAwe m wmaeutehckh t. e”t haHceehir ehprer lohpabssl et hsmetu msdo eslvnoitnlsvge b iesria nimcgh pi npro raov ibcnhlgea.mlle anngd- ■ uwElenlmeed msge eredstn.tu”atraninrdgyin : tgWh wehirhe anst e hwaeterw ’sroeer ckdo,o niand g tg.e rTaachdheee hrrsa crsdouemcrc mweeeed nw twso,ri tk“h,Y twohuoe’r rsdem praeroratbelly-r ■ Hecsttaiuaggdl hese ,y nSsatctsneh damo reoo u ltg:nh eAteitlr t bsinbtiougold noaeegtn syat, ns tae aunalyndczdh inetehgrrse ogtnauu nrcidd obe mtoshd meay e fdsunyinstsscct tueioosmnns s iooh.nof twoh fe g osoukoru dsll ,k trehible- ■ stsMheheieodiirund lgadleb ftieSlhiteecyl hgtcooooo onald:nd eAaacpb tltoiif.oe unT-tss hfi cigsbieu einrsticnw nege o etttehn aai scna oh neueimatr. sacylos im’d ebmaoe dtnoyt sgs, tr“rauYscoptu u’arreens dr eayanollduy 3.Learners’ perceptions of autonomy increase when teachers ask ■ High School: As students’ understanding of balancing equations them for input into classroom procedures, involve them in learning increases, a chemistry teacher comments, “Balancing equations activities, and give them feedback on assessments. Create a class- is important in chemistry and I know it isn’t easy, but you people room environment that helps meet learners’ needs for autonomy. are really getting good at this stuff.” Developmentally Appropriate Practice. These features Developmentally Appropriate Practice in each chapter describe developmental differences in our Personal, Social, and Moral Development students and help teachers ensure that their instruction with Learners at Different Ages will best meet the needs of learners at all developmental Important differences exist in the personal, emotional social, and moral development of elementary, middle, and high school students. The following paragraphs outline suggestions that will help you respond to these differences. levels. The example you see here appears on page 146 of Working with Students in As children enter preschool, they are developing autonomy and taking the initiative to seek Preschool Programs and out experiences and challenges. “Let me help!” and “I want to do it” are signs of this initia- Chapter 3 in the text. Elementary Schools teivxetr.e Cmreit icciassme so,r l eoavde rtlyo rfeesetlrinicgtisv eo fd girueicltt iaonnds ddeetpreanctd fernocmy. aA st etnhsee s oafm ined teimpeen, dcehnildcree na nnde,e ind the structure that helps them learn to take responsibility for their own behavior. As children move through the elementary years, teachers attempt to help them suc- ceed in learning activities challenging enough to promote feelings of competence and industry. This is demanding. Activities that are so challenging that students frequently fail can leave them with a sense of inferiority, but success on trivial tasks does little to make students feel competent (Brophy, 2010). During the elementary years, students need opportunities to practice perspective taking and social problem solving. Discussions and small-group work where students can interact with others and practice these skills are effective learning experiences. The elementary grades also lay the foundation for students’ moral growth and the development of social responsibility and self-control. Teachers who encourage students to understand the impact of their actions on others help them make the transition from preconventional morality, with its egocentric orientation, to conventional morality, at which stage students understand why rules are important for both classrooms and the world outside of school. Working with Students in Adolescence is a time of considerable physical, emotional, and intellectual changes, Middle Schools and adolescents are often uncertain about how to respond to new sexual feelings. They are concerned with what others think of them and are preoccupied with their looks. They want to assert their independence, yet long for the stability of structure and disci- pline. They want to rebel to assert their independence but need something solid to rebel against. Most adolescents successfully negotiate this period, however, exploring different roles and maintaining positive relationships with their parents, teachers, and other adults. Students in middle and junior high schools need firm, caring teachers who empathize with them and their sometimes capricious actions while simultaneously providing the security of clear limits for acceptable behavior (Emmer & Evertson, 2013). Classroom management provides opportunities to advance moral reasoning from preconventional to conventional thinking. Effective teachers create clear classroom rules, discuss the reasons for them, and enforce them consistently. Instruction in middle school classrooms should promote deep understanding of the topics being studied, while simultaneously providing students with opportunities to practice prosocial behaviors, such as tol- erance for others’ opinions, listening politely, and avoiding hurtful comments. Effective instruction in middle schools is highly interactive, and lecture is held to a minimum. Working with Students in High school students are continuing to wrestle with who they are and what they want to High Schools become. Peers become increasingly important to students and have an important influ- ence on social, emotional, and moral development. Linking content to students’ lives is particularly valuable at this age. For example, examining ideas about gender and occupational trends in social studies and showing how math and science can influence their futures are important for these students. Like younger learners, high school students need opportunities to try out new ideas and link them to their developing sense of self. Discussions, small-group work, and focused writing assignments provide valuable opportunities for students to integrate new ideas into their developing self-identities. A01_EGGE7561_10_GE_FM.indd 9 24/08/15 1:49 PM