Edited by Krystyna Zatoń Marek Rejman Anna Kwaśna Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu SCIENCE IN III SWIMMING Edited by Krystyna Zatoń, Marek Rejman, Anna Kwaśna Wrocław 2011 EditoRiAl BoARd Tadeusz Bober, Bogusława Idzik (sekretarz) Artur Jaskólski, Lesław Kulmatycki, Zbigniew Naglak Andrzej Pawłucki, Krystyna Rożek-Piechura (przewodnicząca) Alicja Rutkowska-Kucharska, Marek Woźniewski REviEwERs Tadeusz Bober, Robert Keig Stallman PRoofREAding Ian Anderson CovER dEsign Marek Rejman Anna Miecznikowska tyPEsEtting Beata Irzykowska The work received by the Editors: August 6, 2010 The work accepted for publication: June 27, 2011 The publication co-financed with resources from the fund of the Chair of Physical Activity in Water Environment. © Copyright by Wydawnictwo AWF Wrocław, 2011 ISBN 978-83-89156-15-0 Wydawnictwo Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu 51-612 Wrocław, al. Ignacego Jana Paderewskiego 35 www.awf.wroc.pl/wydawnictwo Edition I ContEnts PREFACE ...............................................................................................................5 ChAPtER i didACtiCs in swiMMing Patrick Pelayo The history of swimming research – past and present .....................................8 Jernej Kapus, Anton Ušaj, Venceslav Kapus The influence of training with reduced breathing frequency on performance of an even front crawl swum to exhaustion ........................14 Krystyna Antoniak-Lewandowska Application of kinematic parameters of motion in teaching small children to swim ................................................................22 Krystyna Zatoń, Anna Kwaśna Relation between values awareness and effectiveness of learning front crawl swimming technique .................................................31 Magdalena Chrobot, Krystyna Zatoń Word – Image – Information. The effectiveness of teacher behaviour during swimming lessons ...............................................................................40 Dorota Burzycka-Wilk Effectiveness of learning to swim and the level of coordination of motor abilities ..................................................................48 ChAPtER ii Biology And BioMEChAniCs in CoMPEtitivE swiMMing Marek Zatoń, Krystyna Zatoń An attempt at rationalizing swimming training efficiency ............................60 Ewa Dybińska, Katarzyna Kucia-Czyszczoń, Joanna Bielatowicz Efficiency of kinematics parameters in the 100 m individual medley test among 14-year old swimmers from Championship Schools in Kraków ........................................................72 Katarzyna Kucia-Czyszczoń, Ewa Dybińska Quantitative criterion of swimming techniques using multi-camera registration system on the example of individual medley, among 13–14-year old girls ............................................................................82 Alicja Pęczak-Graczyk, Piotr Makar, Grzegorz Bielec The influence of training loads applied in taper period on competitive performance of breaststroke swimming ................................94 Ginas Čižauskas, Nijolė Lagūnavičienė, Kęstas Skučas, Adelė Tamošiūnaitė Analysis of swimming high jumps ...............................................................103 Małgorzata Habiera, Katarzyna Antosiak-Cyrak, Elżbieta Rostkowska Execution of selected angles in the Front Pike and Surface Arch positions in synchronized swimming ..........................................................113 Marek Rejman, Adam Staszkiewicz Biomechanical analysis of errors in monofin swimming technique – didactical implications .................................................................................123 Katarzyna Antosiak-Cyrak, Małgorzata Habiera, Elżbieta Kaluga, Elżbieta Rostkowska Dynamic asymmetry of selected coordination abilities of the extremities in swimming children .....................................................142 Marcin Jaszczak Different functions of the upper limbs in breaststroke swimming – a pilot study ..................................................................................................152 PREfACE The symposium “Science of Swimming” is already 10 years old. It changes together with its participants and scientific developments. Swimming is develop- ing thanks to the commitment and passion of many researchers. Athletes achieve ever better results and people in general swim better and better. Some of us have been interested in the history of swimming and have committed to its study; others have embarked on studies in the field related to interference in communi- cation (in a changing environment); other groups of researchers deal with adap- tation to water environment, while some of us are interested in technique and its biomechanical analysis or in safety. The scope of interest related to swimming is vast and aspects related to swimming are found in many fields of science. Hu- mans do not only lose weight while swimming; they may also lose everything if they do not exercise proper caution. It seems that the role of this symposium is the transfer of knowledge from research labs to lecture halls. Therefore the par- ticipation of students in our symposium is not accidental. They are to become the beneficiaries of know-how and findings developed in laboratories and in the field. Exchange of thought in our symposia have always been accompanied by lectures by renowned academics. This allows all the participants and students from all parts of the World to have access to trends, applications and the use of knowledge in practice. We will publish books that will provide all interested with the latest developments in science. The selection of the best publications is a great opportunity to see how science and new trends develop. Selected authors will also authoritatively point new directions for some of us and help blaze new trails for other academics. The symposium is flourishing and it will be develop- ing further so that our publications may become a physical evidence of the state of the art on swimming. We would like to express our sincere thanks to the reviewers of this book: Professor Tadeusz Bober and Professor Robert Keig Stallman for their hardworking and great contribution in the process of the creation of Science in Swimming III. We take also this opportunity to thank all the authors who have contributed to these papers. Editors ChAPtER i didACtiCs in swiMMing SCIENCE IN SWIMMING III, 2011, 8–13 the history of swimming research – past and present Patrick Pelayo University of Lille 2, Lille, France [email protected] Between 1538, the date of the first book specifically dedicated to swimming written by Wynmann, and 1970, the date of the first International symposium on biomechanics and medicine in swimming (organized by J. Lewillie and J.P. Clarys in Brussels), the art of swimming can be described as both the result of the swim- mer’s experience, and technical aspects discovered by scientists. From 1970 up to 2008, as the level of national and international swimming become more competi- tive and professional, sport practitioners turned to science to help decide which methods were more effective than others. Today, and specifically seen in this book, swimming in humans is an important topic of scientific research. Thus, the purpose of this non-exhaustive historical review was to analyze the emergence, evolution and state of swimming science and research from 1538 to 2008. fRoM 1538 to 1970 Numerous written works and films on swimming can explain the technical and teaching concepts1. The different texts available change from a gymnastic, military and utilitarian form of swimming, up until the First World War more in the direction swimming as sport form thereafter. Swimming has become an im- portant cultural phenomenon, where teaching is complex and differs in relation to biomechanical concepts of the same period. Among the different authors, and more specifically in France, one can differentiate: – The humanist instructors2: they were clerics, intellectuals and profession- als. Swimming had a utilitarian and educational form. The objectives were a complete education and an adaptable swimmer. 1 Pelayo P., From “De arte Natandi” to the science of swimming: Biomechanical and pedagogical conceptions in swimming, [in:] Chatard J.C. (ed.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming IX, Université de Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, 2003, pp. 1–7. 2 Thévenot M., L’art de nager, avec des essais pour se baigner utilement, Librairie Lamy, Paris, 1781; De Fontenelle J., Manuel des nageurs – Nouveau manuel complet: des nageurs, des baigneurs, des fabricants d’eau minérale, et des pédicures, Encyclopédie Roret, Paris, 1848; Roger R., Traité de natation ou l’art de nager en rivière et en mer, Editions H. Delarue, Paris, 1881. – The military3: swimming is considered as a strategic weapon. Two aspects were pursued: a hygienic and disciplined activity. – The “Gymnasiarque”4: swimming is a gymnastic art. It consisted of learning positions in a group activity involving discipline5. – Engineers: technology and the use of devices was more important than the technical solutions themselves. Floating and propelling devices (from the stool to the swimming-teaching machine) involved a real educational renun- ciation. – Doctors6: swimming was an additional aid to health and had the beneficial effects of baths and physical exercise. – Swimming teachers7: they had commercial ambitions and published progres- sive learning techniques in order to obtain an institutional recognition. – Sportsmen8: they appeared at the beginning of the 20th century with the sports phenomenon. The goal was new: competition. Moreover, the evolution of biomechanical knowledge and regulation constraints were put forward to explain balance, breathing and propulsion changes in the modern swimming strokes9. In the past 100 years, and in relation to the develop- ment of competition, swimming strokes have been greatly refined because swimmers throughout history have experimented with swimming faster in different ways. On the one hand, swimmers experimented by trial and error and watching others but few champions had the background necessary to explain the mechani- cal action of the strokes. The evolution of technical solutions in swimming has been the result of a permanent research for speed. From 1850 to 1910, the most decisive landmark was when the first competitors transferred from breast stroke, to the front crawl. In 1902, Richard Cavill set a world record in the 100 yards, by swimming the whole distance in the front crawl. On this date, the crawl became the fastest stroke. The front crawl stroke is very efficient because the streamlined position of the body and arm recoveries out the water, decrease the drag resist- ance, while the alternative arm actions guarantee the continuity of the propulsive forces. Between 1912 and 1932, the evolution of balance (and particularly breath- ing changes) mainly explain the improvement of performances. At the Olympic Games in Stockholm in 1912, Duke Kahanamoku adopted a streamlined position, and in Paris (1924) Johnny Weissmuller broke the mythical one minute barrier for the 100 m. In his book10, he explained that, “The instinctive thing for a beginner 3 Courtivron L. de, De la natation et son application – l’art de la guerre, Imprimerie Anthelme Boucher, Paris, 1824. 4 Defrançois C., La locomotion dans l’eau. Principes élémentaires de natation, Im pri merie Mato- Braine, Reims, 1870; Verdonck L., Traité pratique de natation, Editions Le Bigot Frères, Lille, 1896. 5 Beulque P., Descarpentries P., Méthode de natation adoptée par la FFNS, Imprimerie Georgres Frères, 1922. 6 Defrançois, op. cit. 7 Clucague C., La natation apprise en trois exercices d’application par la ceinture Porte-Bouées, Imprimerie G. Gounouilhou, 1900; Beulque, Descarpentries, op. cit. 8 Beulque, Descarpentries, op. cit.; De Coubertin P., La gymnastique utilitaire – Sauvetage- défense-locomotion, 1905. 9 Pelayo, op. cit. 10 Weissmuller J., L’art de nager le crawl, M.P. Tremois, Paris, 1931. thE histoRy of swiMMing REsEARCh 9 to do is to hold his breath. As soon as he learns to overcome this, half his fight is won, and he is ready for the finer points of swimming” and “After improving my breath control,…, where a mile a day had exhausted me completely, I began to do a mile and a half a day with greater ease”. In 1926, Gertrude Ederle broke the record in the crossing the Channel, doing the crawl over the complete distance. On this date, the crawl became the most economical stroke. On the other hand, the first scientific analysis conducted by Dubois-Reymond in 1905 and 192711 as well as Cureton in 193012 helped produce more varied strokes, greater speeds and a better understanding of propulsion through water. This, along with Karpovitch in 193313, marked the beginning of research in stroke mechan- ics and swimming physiology exercise. In 1928, Armbruster first filmed swim- mers under water to study strokes. The Japanese also photographed and studied world-class athletes, using their research to produce a swim team that dominated the 1932 Olympic Games. Then, researchers14 such as Dr. James Edward Counsil- man15 focused both on the forces that act on a body moving through the water and on the exercise physiology applied to swimming, to better define training programs. Owing to their pioneering and painstaking work stroke mechanics, teaching and training methods in swimming were revolutionized. fRoM 1970 to 2008 Today, the science of swimming is highly developed, and helps coaches to im- prove swimmers’ times in competition. From 1970 to 2008, the level of national and international swimming has become more competitive and professional, and swimming science has become one of the keys of swimming success. In the second part of this paper, the purpose of this historical review is to analyze the evolution and state of scientific swimming research. Nevertheless, scientific studies have led to high levels of frustration for coaches due to the inability of a single approach such as physiological, biomechanical, psychological... to provide the answer as quickly as possible. However, determining the most correct answer in the training pro cess is dependent upon the weight of the scientific background available at a spe- cific moment. The results of scientific studies, along with results from practical experiences, can help to determine the best answer, as shown by Troup16 through the concept of the learning continuum: 11 Defrançois, op. cit.; Du Bois-Reymond R., Zur physiologie des schwimmens, Arch Anat Physiol Abt Physiol, 1905, no. 29, pp. 252–278. 12 Cureton T.K., Mechanics and kinesiology of swimming, Res Quart, 1930, no. 1, pp. 87–121. 13 Karpovitch P.V., Water resistance in swimming, Res Quart, 1933, no. 4, pp. 21–28. 14 Klein W.C., Test for the prediction of body resistance in water. Master’s thesis, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1939; Jaeger L.D., Resistance of water as limiting factor of speed in swim- ming. Master’s thesis, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1937. 15 Counsilman J.E., An analysis of the application of force in two types of crawl strokes. Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1951. 16 Troup J.P., The continuum of applied swimming science, [in:] Troup J.P., Hollander A.P., Strasse D., Trappe S.W., Cappaert J.M., Trappe C.A. (eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VII, E & FN Spon, London, 1996, pp. 3–13. 10 P. Pelayo