Ecosystem Services of UHE Carlos Botelho (Lobo/Broa): a new approach for management and planning of dams multiple-uses Periotto,NA.a*andTundisi,JG.b aPost-GraduationProgrammeinEcologyandNaturalResources,FederalUniversityofSãoCarlos–UFSCar, SãoCarlos,SP,Brazil bInternationalInstituteofEcology,RuaBentoCarlos750,CEP13560-660,SãoCarlos,SP,Brazil e-mail:[email protected] Received:February14,2012 –Accepted:August27,2012–Distributed:August31,2013 (With2figures) Abstract Theaimofthisstudywastoidentifyandmakeaninitialaccountingoftheecosystemservicesofthehydroelectric powergenerationplant,UHECarlosBotelho(ItirapinaMunicipality,SãoPauloState,Brazil),anditsmostextensive wetlands-totalof2,640ha-andalsoidentifythedriversofchangeoftheseservices.Twenty(20)ecosystemservices were identified and the estimated quantitative total value obtained was USD 120,445,657.87. year-1 or USD 45,623.35ha-1.year-1.InvestmentsonrestorationofspatialheterogeneityalongTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinand newtechnologiesforregionaleconomicactivitiesmustmaintainecologicalfunctionsaswellasincreasemarginalval- uesofecosystemservicesandthepotentialannualeconomicreturnofecologicalfunctions. Keywords: neotropical reservoirs, ecosystem services, hydrographic basin management, cost-benefit analysis, wetlands,drivers. ServiçosecossistêmicosdoreservatóriodaUHECarlosBotelho(Lobo-Broa):umanova abordagemparaogerenciamentoeplanejamentodosmúltiplosusosderepresas Resumo EsteestudotevecomoobjetivoidentificarevalorarosserviçosecossistêmicosdaUHECarlosBotelho(Itirapina, EstadodeSãoPaulo,Brasil)esuasáreasalagadasmaisextensasetambémidentificarasforçantesdealteraçõesnestes serviços.Vinte(20)serviçosecossistêmicosforamidentificadoseovalorquantitativototalestimadoobtidoresultou em USD 120.445.657,87. ano-1 ou USD 45.623,35 ha-1.ano-1. Investimentos na restauração da heterogeneidade espacialdabaciahidrográficadoTietê-Jacaréeemnovastecnologiasparaasatividadeseconômicasregionaisdevem contribuirparaamanutençãodasfunçõesecológicaseparaoaumentodosvaloresmarginaisedovalorpotencialanual deretornodosserviçosecossistêmicos. Palavras-chave: reservatórios neotropicais, serviços ecossistêmicos, gerenciamento da bacia hidrográfica, análise custo-benefício,áreasalagadas,forçantes. 1.Introduction innovative way” to assess their local and regional significance,“providingaconsolidatedconceptualbasis Reservoir construction for hydroelectricity genera- forfuturestrategicplansonreservoirconstructioninthe tionhasbeenwidelystudiedconcerningitsimpactson Neotropics”(Tundisietal.,2008b). biotaandhumanwell-beingthroughtheadoptionofEn- Itisessentialtoconsiderspatialandtemporalscales vironmental Impact Assessment (EIA) protocols. To ofecosystemservices,andthustheassessmentofitsdi- complement EIA protocols, Tundisi et al. (2008b) pro- rect and indirect drivers (World Resources Institute, posedanewapproachforidentifyingpositiveandnega- 2005) may be an essential tool to point out the main tiveaspectsofdamconstructionbasedoncost-benefit managementactionsneededtorestoreandmaintainthe assessment through valuation of ecosystem services of ecosystem functioning along the hydrographic basin. reservoirs. Valuing ecosystem services, although diffi- Thiswillguaranteethegoodfunctioningoftheecologi- cultanduncertain,isanimportanttooltoperceivehow cal processes of the reservoir and the services it pro- human welfare may be affected by their degradation videsforhumanwell-being. (Costanzaetal.,1997).Forreservoirs,inwhichthecon- structionprocessesmodifymostoftheoriginalterrestrial Theoretical studies of reservoir ecosystem services andaquaticecosystemservices,thisanalysismaybe“an maycontributeforagoodepistemologicaldevelopment Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 471 Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG. ofaneconomicvaluationtheoryoftheseaquaticsystems Theobjectiveofthisstudyistoidentifytheecosys- forfuturecost-benefitanalyses. tem services and their drivers of change in the UHE Carlos Botelho reservoir and the two main wetlands 1.1.UHECarlosBotelhoreservoir (Lobo and Itaqueri) with the purpose of constructing somebackgroundformanagementplansandcontribut- UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirisagoodmodelfora ingforfuturecost-benefitanalysesofdamconstruction. theoreticalstudybecauseithasbeenintensivelystudied Inaddition,thisisafirstattempttoorganisean“ecologi- byresearchersfromuniversitiesandotherresearchinsti- cal service data sheet” for a small but intensively used tutionsforatleast40yearsintheareasofaquaticecol- reservoirinSãoPauloState,Brazil.Thisstudymaycon- ogy,zoology,botany,geologyandothers,butthereare tribute for the construction of (a) an ecosystem service fewstudiesconcerningtheimportanceofecosystemser- database of UHE Carlos Botelho reservoir and its vicesforhumanwell-being.Thisreservoirislocatedin marshes,(b)abackgroundforfutureenvironmentalman- themiddleofSãoPauloState(22°15’S;47°49’W),Bra- agement plans of Tietê-Jacaré hydrographic basin, and zil(Figure1),andpertainstoItirapinamunicipality.Itis (c)abackgroundforfuturecost-benefitanalysesforthe insertedinTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinanditsmain constructionofnewhydroelectricpowerplantreservoirs tributariesaretheLoboStreamandItaqueriRiver,both intheNeotropicalregion. withthemostextensivewetlands. Createdin1936,itsmainobjectivewastosupplywa- 2.MaterialandMethods ter for Carlos Botelho hydroelectric power generation plant (UHE), which provides energy in small scale Fortheassessmentofecosystemserviceswiththeir (2000kWh).Nowadays,themultipleusesofthereser- ecological,social,andeconomicrelations,amatrixwas voircontributeforlocalandregionaldevelopmentofen- organisedaccordingtoDeGroot(1992;1994)whereen- vironmental,socialandeconomicactivities.Landusesof vironmental services identified for the UHE Carlos thisbasinarecharacterisedmainlybyagriculture,refor- Botelho reservoir and both wetlands were listed and estation,sandminingandcattleraisingbuttherearealso matched with their corresponding benefits for human impactsofhumanwastederivedfromnon-pointsources well-being:a)ecologicalvalues(conservationandexis- andthenon-efficientstabilizationpondsofItirapinaMu- tencevalue);b)socialvalues(health);andc)economical nicipality(Tundisietal.,2003). values(consumptionusevalue,productiveusevalueand Figure1-LocationofUHECarlosBotelhoreservoir,itstributariesandmainwetlands,ItaqueriandLobo. 472 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices employment value). As this study does not use contin- Brazil’sCarbonInstituteforthemediumcostofcarbon gentmethodologies,optionvalues(correspondenttoso- allowancesonDecember2010. cialvalues)wereomittedastheyreflectpeople’sprefer- Direct and indirect drivers of change in ecosystem encesforthefuture.Ecosystemservicesprovidedbythe serviceswereanalysedaccordingtotheMillenniumEco- reservoir and wetlands were listed all together, due to systemAssessment(2005)framework,wherealltheeco- theirecologicalinteractions. systemservicesidentified,andconsequentmainbenefits In this matrix, qualitative values were assigned for for human well-being, direct and indirect drivers were servicesthatrequirecontingentvaluationasforexample listed in separate boxes and linked through arrows ac- existencevalue,orotherservicesthatwerenotpossible cordingtotheirinfluenceoneachotherandconsidering toinputavalue.Signalswereusedtoexpressdirectorin- thatallthesecomponentsoperateonlocal,regionaland directbenefits:+(onepositivesignal),forservicesthat globalscales. indirectlyaffecthumanwell-being;++(twopositivesig- nals),forservicesthatdirectlyaffecthumanwell-being. 3.Results Quantitativevalueswereestimatedbasedoninformation Table1showstheecosystemservicesidentifiedfor acquiredonscientificliteratureandoralcommunication. UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandwetlandsofItaqueri Calculationsofquantitativevaluesnotonlytookintoac- RiverandLoboStream.Thefollowingparagraphsdetail countthereservoirsuperficialareaof6.8km2(Tundisiet eachserviceidentifiedandvalued.Figure2showsdirect al.,2003),butItaqueriRiverandLoboStreamwetlands’ andindirectdriversoftheservicesidentified. totalareaof19.6km2(Vergara,1996)astheseecosys- temsinteract.Thetotalareaconsideredinallcalculations (a)Solarenergyfixation(photosynthesis)andbio- is26.4km2or2,640ha.CurrencyconversionfromBra- massproduction,(b)gasregulationand(c)oxygenpro- zilian “Reais” to United States Dollars (USD) was ob- duction: Photosynthesis is a very important regulation tainedonthewebsitehttp:\finance.yahoo.com,withex- functionforallecosystemservices.Biomassproduction, changeratesfromApril4th2011(R$1.00=USD0.62; which is a consequence of the photosynthesis process, 1.00 = USD 1.42). Carbon price was established as may be used as an ecosystem good for human welfare 14.00/tonC(USD9.90/tonC),accordingtoestimatesof andgenerateconsumption,productionandemployment Figure2-DirectandindirectdriversofchangeintheLoboReservoirecosystemservices(AdaptedfromMillenniumEcosys- temAssessment,2005). Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 473 Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG. 3 Sources Angelini&Petrere,1996 Thibodeau&Ostro(apudSantos,2000) Monteiro,200 nt e me yu + ploval + m E e 4 4 marshes onomicalvalues Productiveusvalue 102,423,999.8 102,423,999.8 sive Ec use n n e o oiranditsmostext Consumptivalue ++ potentialservices. otelhoreserv ocialvalues Health ++ ++ ++ ++ + well-being.*: B S arlos uman C h UHE enceue + + + + + affect esof Existval + + + + + ectly alu dir Table1-Ecosystemservices,quantitative(USD/year)andqualitativev Ecologicalvalues ServiceFunctionConservationvalue Regulation13,205,506.13 Gasregulation 5,506.13Regulationoftheatmosphereairqualitybyemissionorex-tractionofchemicals. ++ClimateregulationRegulationoftempera-ture,precipitationandallbio-logicalprocessesdependentonclimatevariablesatlocallevel. 13,200,000.00Waterflowregula-Integrityofecosystemre-tion/floodpreventionsponsetoenvironmentalfluc-tuations. WaterstorageandWaterfluxregulationfor++groundwaterrechargegroundwaterrecharge. ++Retentionofsedimentparti-Sedimentreten-cles,organicmatterandnu-tion,soilformationtrientswithintheecosystem.andfertilitymainte-nance. +:servicesthatindirectlyaffecthumanwell-being.++:forservicesthat 474 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices 6 Sources Angelini&Petrere,199 nt e ploymvalue + *++ m E e es us u e micalval roductivvalue + *++ o P n o Ec se u n o umptivalue + *++ vices. Cons alser nti e ot p s *: ocialvalue Health + ++ + ++ ++ well-being. S n a m u h enceue + + + + + affect Existval + + + + + ectly dir at n h gicalvalues Conservatiovalue 92,186.65 88,377.49 3.809,16 ++ ++ ++ +:forservicest Ecolo Function Transformationofluminousenergyintochemicalenergy(organisms’structure–bio-logicalmaterialorbiomass–forthesubsequentelementofthetrophicchain). Recyclingandstorageofnu-trientandotheressentialchemicalelements. Habitatforbiotareproduc-tion. Habitatforfaunaandflora Watermovementamongthedifferentdepositsites. ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+ Table1(cont.) Service Regulation Solarenergyfixation(photosynthesis)andbiomassproduction Nutrientretentionandinterventiononbiogeochemicalcy-cles Maintenanceofre-productionhabitats Maintenanceofbio-logicaldiversity Watercycling +:servicesthatindire Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 475 Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG. Sources Tundisi,oralcommunication Pereiraet.al,2008;AratuGeraçãoS/A,oralcom-munication;Vergara,1996 nt 5 5 ploymevalue 7,862.5 ++ 7,862.5 *++ *++ *++ m 8 8 E 5 5 e micalvalues roductiveusvalue 3,956,440.33 745,272.12 3,211,168.21(constructedarea) *++ *++ *++ o P n o Ec se u Consumptionvalue 14,904.00 14,904.00(fishing) ++ *++ + *++ alservices. nti e ot p s *: ocialvalue Health ++ ++ ++ *++ ++ ++ + *++ well-being. S n a m u h enceue + + + + affect Existval + + + + ectly dir at n h o t values nservativalue ++ ++ ++ services gical Co +:for Ecolo Function Storageandretentionofwa-terforhydroelectricitypro-duction. Availablespaceforhumanleisure. Availablespaceforhumantransportation. Physicalandchemicalcondi-tionsavailableforlargescalemarketproductionofsomespecies. Oxygenproductionasresultofphotosynthesis. Portionofgrossprimarypro-ductionextractableasfood. Biologicalbasisofspeciesvariability Sourceofmedicinalproducts ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+ Table1(cont.) Service Support Energyconversion Recreationandtour-ism Transportation *Aquaculture(fishfarming) Production Oxygen Food Geneticresources Medicinalresources +:servicesthatindire 476 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices economicvalues.Associalandeconomicbenefitsarein- Sources Tundisi,oralommunica-on) dPvdiaurrilcemutceiato.,rnyFtohoprefrytohtdhiwsueeccrtpaeiholcynsutcolomaptrliaeaoydnnk,ewtvxoiapntlhrueaesonssndoebfsiqootoummtaaaellistspmartipaivmcreoraodrspuyihcgpytnirtoaeolns-. (cti weresummed(MatheusandTundisiapudTundisi,1988; ent 6 6 Tundisi and Matsumura-Tundisi, 2008; Delello, 2008). mploymvalue 54,919.4 ++ 54,919.4 Ctvoaotlanulseisdfuoeprrei“nrsfgiocltiaharalteanmreearacgroyoffpithxhyaetteirosensoeacrncvudopibryiot1hm0e%atsos(t6ap8lroehdsatu)imcotfiaottenhd”e E ecosystemserviceisUSD88,377.49peryear. e micalvalues roductiveusvalue 109,838.91 ++ 109,838.91 glDaetenespCtrhieotesensuseliuttgasmanmsptetfesirosoionnm-atohnlpeidghaoortettmroloesoapysshnpeithchoeefrssetciaasatrneab,dnordinensdraueiqosltupxsaiirdtoaiebctitasoanynindstreeoedmgxuyisn--. o P EcopathIImodelling(AngeliniandPetrere,1996)show n o thatthebalanceoftotalprimaryproduction/totalrespira- Ec use tionispositive.Theestimatedvalueforgasregulation on ecosystemserviceisUSD5,506.13peryear.Twoquali- mptialue ++ ces. tativescoreswereattributedtoexistenceandhealthval- uv vi ues for its intrinsic importance and direct influence on Cons ntialser humAansohbesaeltrhv.edbyCostanzaetal.(1997)onesingleeco- e systemfunctionmayresultinmorethanoneecosystem ot p service.Photosynthesisfunctionsofextractionorrelease ocialvalues Health ++ ++ well-being.*: faodovfurocgitardieoseodnsxo”iumegbcealonyesavryteiasosltuuenmlattoiisofnen“rthvgoeiafcsteahrsqie.sugTfauhutlienacctliatositoyntens”rt,eai“mnsodvsx.e“yrogIyxneiynmogpreprdnooerdprtuarotnco--t S n tion”wasqualitativelyvaluedwithhighecologicaland a m socialvalues. u h Direct drivers: Release of organic (domestic and enceue + affect caantdtlpeersatiisciindgeswraesstiedsu)easn)dininToiergtêa-nJiaccparoéllhuytadnrtosg(rfaeprhtiilcisbears- Existval + ectly sin.Suspendedorganicmattermayinfluencelightpene- dir tration,affectingphotosynthesis,absorptionandproduc- at tionofgasesandprimaryproduction.Iforganicmatter n h o t accumulatesinthereservoiritmayrequireahighcon- gicalvalues Conservativalue ++ +:forservices semunemcniInptn,gtiddoteihnrmeeoocrfgtesrddaeirprsivshvooyeli,rvresewc:doAantodeoxremyqqgiuuceaanatleictatyeniv.ndivtciireaosunasmnedeantnetoacxlhimnao,alinonagfgileues-- Ecolo Function Valuespeopleattachtothelandscapeandhowtheyun-derstanditsuse. Allthestructureprovidedthatenablesthedevelopmentofscientificresearchandthuseducationalvalues. ctlyaffecthumanwell-being.+ insbicttennhheonorfdeerilcllnvlioiiuervrgingeeccoagikncetlweiutnscovs.neeounemswEstwcphepnaloereeeyovonlsdoffipetrsagrpeeooirselbrcenefettotu.rmyoevaTstniytveciohtcnosaadneetltmcsiessuarhem.lemetoSascteou,cctsdtnethfiduiteorieohrcntvriineamtiveiicstnsefriaeimoesrancssstnbaaaeraeongyerrnfvuceesfdaeoelmtelaa.titcothreertefcnressdhitbeinomoreaodnvhfcnipitvaedcoinvciorerdeioinstvouwas,seuanyirtlrmncsseteafaceuflnnouhomsddf--rt ul- ca- ndire grou(dn)dwCaltiemrarteechraergguel,a(tfi)onre,cr(eea)tiwonataerndsttoourarigsem,a(ngd) C u i Table1(cont.) Service Information Aestheticandtural Scienceandedtion +:servicesthat wuotsiefloarawnvtteiiarrocteencessyr/ufcfalllltosoisonweidgnns,ep(fwrrhrgeoa)yvmteeecnrntoehtsniretovgobneyraar,cssg(oiiejonn)nwvwt,reharareitsncecishrorpebngoao,etrd(itnoiai)eentrwsi,aoaaftnlento:esdorRddpfierlrpoececrweceiptpvrtiuieetosgnane--- Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 477 Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG. tion,andindirectuseoneslikelocalclimateregulation, cial values as this service benefits biota, and avoid groundwaterrechargeandwatercycling. injuriestohumanhealth. Energyconversion:AccordingtotheownerofUHE Water cycling and climate regulation: Reception Carlos Botelho hydroelectric generation power plant andstorageofwaterflowsfromthehydrographicbasin (AratuGeraçãoS/A)theenergygeneratedissoldforap- and precipitation fluxes, evaporation, evapotranspira- proximatelyUSD62,106.01permonthresultinginUSD tion,andgroundwaterinfiltrationarecontributionsofthe 745,272.12peryearpassingdirectlythroughthemarket. studied area for water cycling. There is no direct mea- This service positively impacts human well-being and surementoftheinfluenceoftheUHECarlosBotelhores- employment, so that these values were highly qualita- ervoiranditswetlandsontemperatureandprecipitation tivelyscored. regulationintheregionbutitisknownthatevaporation Recreationandtourism:Thisservicegeneratesex- ofwaterfromawaterbodydoeselevatelocalhumidity pressive direct economic fluxes on local and regional andmayeaselocalclimate.Thisevaporativecoolingcre- economiesbyactivities(aquaticsports,fishingandtour- ates a more comfortable environment for visitors’ ismingeneral)basedonwaterstorage.Thisquantitative welfareandforbiotathatdependonhumidity.Theseser- valuewasinferredbysumminguppropertyvalues(hou- vices-watercyclingandclimateregulation-wereevalu- sesconstructednearthereservoir),fishingvalues(travel ated with a high score on conservation, existence and cost value) and employment value. Property value was health values due to their high positive impacts on the estimatedatUSD3,211,168.21peryearasproductive maintenanceofaquaticandterrestriallocalecosystems usevalue,basedonVergara(1996).Fishingvalue(Pe- andonhumanwell-being. reiraetal.,2008)wasestimatedatUSD14,904.00per Transportation:Thesupplyofwaterstoredwithin year, as consumption use value. Employment value the reservoir supports aquatic transport, which in this was estimated considering costs of maintenance of 85 case, is used in recreation activities. This service was employees (Vergara, 1996) totalling USD 587,862.55 scored with the higher qualitative social and economic peryear.Thetotalestimatedvalueforrecreationand consumptivevaluesasitinfluenceshumanhealth,well- tourism ecosystem service is USD 3,977,878,76 per being,andthelocaleconomy. year. Social values were highly scored because recre- Directdrivers:(1)Landcoverandusealongthehy- ationaffectsmentalandphysicalhumanhealth. drographicbasin–whichinfluencethedischargeoffer- Water storage and groundwater recharge: The tilizers, pesticides and other chemical substances into areathatembracesUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandits waterbodies,wetlandsandUHECarlosBotelhoreser- wetlands is inserted in the Guarani Aquifer System voir–havethepotentialtocausealgaeandotheraquatic (GAS) recharge area (Gomes et al., 2006). Based on plantsexcessivegrowth,anoxiaandeutrophication.This Monteiro (2003) data of recharge rate and on market may impact the water quality of the reservoir for biota price of treated water provisioned by the Autonomous andrecreationactivities(fishing,swimming,etc.);trans- ServiceofWaterandWastewaterofSãoCarlosMunici- portationandenergyconversionduetoexcessivegrowth pality (São Paulo State, Brazil), the resulting value is offlora;thequalityofwaterrechargedtounderground USD 102,423,999.84 per year, which is considered as supply; and cause excessive sediment transportation productionusevaluesinceagreatpartofthewatersup- fromthebasintowetlandsandreservoir,whichreduces plyusedinSãoPauloState(Brazil)isgroundwater.Wa- theirdepthandbuffercapacitytosoftentheimpactsof terstorageandgroundwaterrechargeisofgreatimpor- natural floods. (2) Precipitation extremes, which deter- tanceforallecological,social,andeconomicvalues,so minethequantityofwaterstoredanddirectlyinfluence highqualitativevaluesweregiventotheonesthatcould hydroelectric generation, flood prevention and water notbequantified.Smallscaleextractionofgroundwater quality.(3)Theintroductionofallochtonousfishspecies (domesticwells)isverycommoninthisregion,aswellas and consequent elimination of other fish species is bigscaleextractiontosupplymunicipalities,soground- knowntobethecauseoflowfrequencyoffishermenin waterrechargeecosystemservicecertainlyhasimportant thisreservoir(Pereiraetal.,2008).(4)Spatialheteroge- influence on the regional economy and human well- neityalsoinfluenceswaterqualityandquantityalongthe being. hydrographic basin, reservoir and wetlands. Indirect Water flow regulation/flood prevention: Distur- drivers: Demography and economy, which determine bancepreventionbythereservoirandwetlands,through landcoverandusealongthebasinandwastewaterdis- theregulationofwaterflowsduringprecipitationevents posal; science and technologies that determine alterna- isimportanttoprotectadjacentanddownstreamhouses, tives for economic activities; environmental manage- homefarms,recreationinfra-structureandotherproper- ment and education for the maintenance of spatial tiesfromfloodingandconsequentdamagestolocalecon- heterogeneityandwaterqualityforhumanuse. omy and human health. According to Thibodeau and Ostro(apudSantos,2000)thevalueoffloodprevention (k)Nutrientretentionandinterventiononbiogeo- ofwetlandsisUSD5,000.00/ha/year.Thisvaluewasin- chemicalcycles:Wetlandsprovidewaterofgoodquality ferredforthereservoirandwetlandareaswhichresulted - maintenance of low conductivity and organic matter in USD13,200,000.00 per year as conservation value. concentration - for recreation for UHE Carlos Botelho Highqualitativescoresweregiventoexistenceandso- reservoir(TundisiandMatsumura-Tundisi,2003).Whi- 478 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 UHECarlosBotelhoreservoirecosystemservices takeretal.(1995)studiedthreedifferentcompartments scoredwithtwohighqualitativevalues,asthisserviceis (sediment, interstitial water and water layer above wa- important for the maintenance of local ecological pro- ter-sediment interface) of Lobo Stream and Itaqueri ductivity. One qualitative value was given to social Riverwetlandsandverifiedthat13to20%ofnitrogen healthvalue,asitindirectlyaffectshumanhealth. comingfromupstreamwaterbodiesisrecycledinthese Directdrivers:Landcoveranduseandspatialheter- wetlands.Tundisietal.(2003)estimatedacostofUSD ogeneityonTietê-Jacaréhydrographicbasinarethemain 1,428,438.34 for the implementation of a wastewater directdriversofthisservice.Vegetationmosaicsregulate treatmentplantinthisarea.Thisvaluemaybeconsidered erosion and suspended solid transport (Tundisi and asareplacementcostasthewastewatertreatmentplant Matsumura-Tundisi,2010).Ontheotherhand,economic represents a substitution of ecosystem services. Con- activitiesthatremovevegetationcoversuchasagricul- sidering the maximum nitrogen treatment percentage ture,cattleraisingandsandmining,increasesoilerosive (20%)(Whitakeretal.,1995)ofthewetlands,andtheex- potential and suspended solid transport. Indirect driv- trapolation of this percentage for other chemical ele- ers: economy and demography along the hydrographic ments(Tundisietal.,2003),avalueofUSD285,687.66is basin; environmental management, education and poli- obtained. Dividing this value for the reservoirs “age”, cies,whichmayinfluenceonhowlandisexploredand 75years,“nutrientretentionandinterventiononbio- altered. geochemicalcycles”ecosystemserviceisestimatedat USD 3,809.16 per year. High qualitative values were (m)Maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity,(n)mainte- givenforexistenceandsocialvalues,asbiogeochemical nance of reproduction habitats, (o) genetic resources, cycling directly affects ecosystem functioning and (p)medicinalresources,(q)food,(r)aquaculture: humanhealth.Itmustbeobservedthatthestudyofthis Maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity:Wetlandsand ecosystem service highlights (a) the role of some bio- reservoirsplayanimportantroleinmaintaininghabitats geochemicalprocessesofwetlands,and(b)theneedto for fauna and flora species not only from their aquatic repairtheexistentstabilizationpondsinItirapinaMunic- systems,butalsoforresidentandtransientterrestrialspe- ipalityinordertotreathumanwastewaterbeforedispos- cies.Severalstudiesinthisreservoirhaveregisteredthe ingitbacktotheriverbasin,asrequiredbyadequatesan- presenceofmanyfloraandfaunaaquaticspecies,rang- itationandenvironmentalmanagementpolicies. ingfromphytoplankton,zooplanktonandotherinverte- Direct drivers: Precipitation extremes, land cover bratestomacrophytesandfishes(Peláez-Rodriguezand and use, and spatial heterogeneity along the hydro- Matsumura-Tundisi,2002;Pereiraet.al,2008;Dellelo, graphic basin. Agricultural activities, cattle raising and 2008;Luzia,2009).Therearealsorecordsofterrestrial sandminingonTietê-Jacarébasin,resultinnon-punctual fauna(Motta-Júnior,2008;Sawayaetal.,2008)thatcer- discharge of organic waste, metal, fertilisers and pesti- tainlyusethereservoirandwetlandsforwater,habitat, cides residues into water bodies. Wetlands treat effi- foodandbreeding.Itisacomplextasktogiveeconomic cientlytheorganicandinorganicloads,butifprecipita- valuetobiodiversity.Butitiscertainthatinteractionsbe- tion events in the basin are scarce, there will be lower tween species and the physical and chemical environ- dilutionofpollutantsinwater,anexcessinthetreatment mentresultinbiologicalresources(goods)orecosystem capacityofwetlandsandinconsequencechangesinres- servicesforhumanwelfare.Thevalueofbiodiversitycan ervoirwaterqualityforhumanrecreation.Spatialhetero- be mapped using species’ richness (Williams et al., geneity(vegetationmosaics)alongthehydrographicba- 1997),butquantifyingitintermsofmonetaryvaluemust sin regulates biogeochemical cycles, influencing water requireamoreelaborateanalysismaybethroughabio- quality parameters (Tundisi and Matsumura-Tundisi, physicalapproach(Jörgensen,1992;Greenet.al,1994). 2010)oftheUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirwatersupply. Highqualitativeecologicalandsocialvaluesweregiven Indirectdrivers:Demographyandeconomyalongthe forthe“maintenanceofbiologicaldiversity”service.Itis hydrographicbasin.Newtechnologiesdevelopedbysci- believedthatalthoughnotquantified,biodiversityrepre- entificresearchmaybringalternativestoagriculture,cat- sentsasignificantecologicalvaluebecauseitis“aneces- tle raising and mining, and decrease punctual and sarypreconditionforthelongtermmaintenanceofbio- non-punctualdischargeofpollutantsintowaterbodies. logical resources” (Wood, 1997), that is, the other ecosystem services derive from it. In addition, high (l) Sediment retention, soil formation and fertility scoreswereattributedbecausetheresearchareaispro- maintenance: Reservoirs retain suspended matter that tectedbylawasa“wildlifezone”(SãoPauloStateDe- comes from its tributaries (Tundisi and Matsumura- creeNo.20.960,June8thof1983).Biologicaldiversity Tundisi,1990;Tundisietal.,2008a).Despitesomenega- maintenance also presents potential direct use, produc- tiveimpacts,theretentionofsuspendedmatterinUHE tiveuseandemploymenteconomicvalues(Agostinhoet CarlosBotelhoreservoirmayreducedownstreamturbid- al.,2009;AlhoandSabino,2011). ity, benefitting primary production. In wetlands, reten- Maintenanceofreproductionhabitats:Theland- tionoforganicmatterandtrapofnutrientsinsediment scapefeaturesofUHECarlosBotelhoreservoirandits particlesresultinsoilformation,whichmaintainslocal wetlands,theirchemicalconditions,amongstotherchar- productivity,biodiversityandgoodwaterqualityinthe acteristics,offernurserygroundforthereproductionof reservoirforhumanwell-being.Ecologicalvalueswere speciesoffaunaandflora,whichcontributesforbiologi- Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482 479 Periotto,NA.andTundisi,JG. caldiversitymaintenance.“Maintenanceofreproduction (TundisiandMatsumura-Tundisi,2010),andalsoinflu- habitats”ecosystemservicewasvaluedwithahighscore ence groundwater recharge and the diversity of biota (twopositivesignals)forecologicalvalues,andwithone species. The more heterogeneous the system is, the signal for social value as it indirectly affects human highertheprobabilityofhavingseveralecosystemser- health. vicesbeingoffered(WilsonandPeter,1998). Geneticresourcesandmedicinalresources:“Ge- Indirect drivers: demography, economy, technol- netic resources” and “medicinal resources” ecosystem ogy,science,environmentalmanagementandeducation. servicesareconsequencesoflocalbiodiversity.Foreco- logicalvaluesofgeneticresourcesservice,twoqualita- (s) Aesthetic and cultural services: Local environ- tivesignalswereassignedbecausegeneticvariabilityin mentalqualityisofgreatimportanceforaestheticvalues populationsisimportantforspeciessurvival.Onequali- oftheUHECarlosBotelhoreservoir,becauseitenhances tativesignalwasattributedforsocialvalueasthisservice recreational values. Aesthetic is an important service indirectlyaffectshumanhealth.Twoqualitativesignals sinceitmotivatesthepresenceofvisitorsandtheirwell- were assigned to the existence value of “medicinal re- being.Italsoinfluencesvisitor’sculturalchoices,thatis, sources” service, for its future value to human popula- how people understand and consume local natural re- tions.Bothgeneticandmedicinalresourcespresentpo- sources.Itcertainlygenerateslocalconsumptivevalues, tential social and economic values, if investments in productionandemploymentvalues.Twoqualitativesig- science are made on molecular genetics and medicinal nalswereassignedtoecological,socialandeconomical chemistryresearchfocusedonhumanwell-being. values,asapleasinglandscapemaymeananecosystem Foodavailabilityisalsoaconsequenceofhabitatref- withgoodfunctioningofitsecologicalinteractions. uge and biodiversity. This service, in UHE Carlos Drivers:Alldirectandindirectdriversconsideredin Botelho reservoir is represented by small scale fishing other ecosystem services influence reservoir and (directconsumption)withrarecasesofcommercialex- wetlands environmental quality, altering aesthetic and ploringasverifiedbyPereiraet.al(2008)butwithdirect culturalvalues. consumptionvalue.Theecosystemservice“food”pro- ductionwasvaluedwithtwoqualitativesignalsforeco- (t)Scienceandeducation:ResearchonUHECarlos logicalandsocialvalues. Botelhoreservoiranditssurroundingareas(includingits Aquaculture:Fishfarmingoraquacultureisaneco- wetlands) started in 1971 by the Federal University of systemservicewithpotentialtobedevelopedintheUHE São Carlos - UFSCar (Brazil). In 1976, the Center for Carlos Botelho reservoir. Angelini and Petrere (1996) Water Resources and Applied Ecology – CRHEA - of andAngelini(2002)showedthroughEcopathmodelling São Paulo State University (Brazil) made high invest- software that the reservoir is able to support Piaractus mentsintheCRHEAbuildingconstructionandthenin mesopotamicusfarmingifefficientlymanagedconcern- researchonclimatology,transportphenomena,hydrau- ing reservoir water quality. Potential direct use values lics,environmentalpolitics,hydrometry,amongothers. canbedeveloped,includinghumanhealth,consumption, Apost-graduationprogramatUFSCarwascreatedinthe productiveuseandemploymentones. same year focusing on studies in this reservoir and its Direct drivers: Direct drivers for the services re- wetlands on zoology, botany and ecology among other portedarethefollowing:(1)Landcoverandusealong researchareas,withthesupportofscholarshipsandfo- Tietê-Jacaré hydrographic basin. Pollutants (pesticides mentation agencies. Approximately R$ 2,000,000.00 andfertilizers)dischargeintowaterbodiesandsandmin- was invested in the CRHEA construction and R$ ingthatincreaseerosionpotential,maychangereservoir 5,500,000.00oninitialresearches(oralcommunication and wetlands water quality (concerning chemical sub- withProf.Dr.JoséGaliziaTundisi). stances)andphysicalrefuge(relatedtosedimenttrans- This information service – science and education - portation)forbiota.(2)Allochtonousfishspeciesintro- wascalculatedbyaddingCRHEAinitialinvestmentsto duction, which have already been confirmed to have estimatedinvestmentsonpost-graduationscholarshipsat diminishedreservoirfishspeciesandrecreationalfishing UFSCar. Summing up the CRHEA initial investments activities.AccordingtoFragosoetal.(2005)thereser- anddividingtheresultbyitsexistencetime(35years)it voir contains 4 allochtonous fish species: Cyprinus is obtained at approximately R$214,285.71 (USD carpio, Oreochromis niloticus, Tilapia rendalli and 133,084.31) per year. Assuming that the UFSCar post- Cichlacf.ocellaris.ItisbelievedthatCichlacf.ocellaris graduation ecology programme has 20 Masters Degree have eliminated some other fish species by predation; studentsperyearwithscholarshipsofR$1,200,00and15 thisinformationisconfirmedbyfishersreportontheloss Doctorate students per year with scholarships of offishspecies(Pereiraet.al,2008).(3)Spatialheteroge- R$1,800.00, the estimated value obtained is USD neity in the hydrographic basin, along upstream water 31,674.06 per year. The sum total of CRHEA and bodies (to the reservoir), influence water quality, sedi- UFSCarvaluesresultsinUSD164,758.37peryear.Con- mentandnutrientloadsandenergyfluxesthat flowto sideringthat1/3ofthisvalueisdestinedtosupportem- wetlands and reservoirs, causing alteration in micro- ployment(valueofscientificpublications),thevaluefor habitats. Riparian forests, vegetation mosaics and scienceandeducationecosystemserviceisestimatedat wetlands are buffer systems of the hydrographic basin USD109,838.91peryear(productiveusevalue)inad- 480 Braz.J.Biol.,2013,vol.73,no.3,p.471-482