R Maller M. Leupelt Eco Targets, Goal Functions, and Orientors Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Felix Miiller Maren Leupelt (Eds.) Eco Targets, Goal Functions, and Orientors With 77 Figures and 55 TabIes Springer .Dr. FELIX MULLER Dipl. Ing. MAREN LEUPELT Universităt Kiel Okologie-Zentrum Schauenburger StraBe 112 D-24118 Kiel Germany ISBN 978-3-642-63720-9 Die Deutsche Bibliothek -CIP Einheitsaufnahme Ecc targets, goal functions and orientors : with 55 tables I Felix MiilIer, Maren Leupelt (ed.). -Berlin; Heidelberg; New York; Barcelona ; Budapest ; Hong Kong ; London ; Milan ; Paris; Santa Clara; Singapore; Tokyo: Springer, 1998 ISBN 978-3-642-63720-9 ISBN 978-3-642-58769-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58769-6 This work is subject to copyright. 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Typesetting: Camera ready by editors Cover Design: Design & Production, Heidelberg SPIN 10568571 31/3137 -5 432 10-Printed on acid-free paper Foreword This volume comprises the proceedings of the International Workshop on Eco logical Goal Functions, held at the Schleswig-Holstein Cultural Center of Salzau, August 30 - September 4, 1996. The conference - first in a series - intended to be convened at Salzau at 1 - 2 year intervals to address various aspects of theo retical and application-oriented ecology, was initiated, organized and carried out under the auspices of the Ecology Center of the Kiel University. It featured key note addresses, invited lectures, submitted papers, and posters. 32 contributions written by authors from eight countries, were selected to be presented in this book. From the very rich discussions of the workshop, some general characteristics emerged which might become important for a deeper understanding of the nature of evolving systems or, in other words, systems with a history, described by variables with a high degree of interdependence. These characteristics include the following: Speaking of 'goal functions' is a convenient 'fa~on de parler', since a logical analysis of the formal structure of teleological and causal explanations shows that both are analogous with regard to the inherent structural typology and the basic mode of explanation. Teleological interpretations introduce motives or objectives of actors into the set of 'antecedens' conditions relevant for system evolution, and are consequently a subset of causal interpretations. Hence it en sues that, for the sake of terminological clarity, the use of the term "goal" should be limited to the modeling context, while in descriptions of the real-world situa tion terms like "teleonomy" or "finality" appear more appropriate. Considering the latter terms, a further distinction is indicated. Static teleon omy or fitness means that a certain arrangement, for instance poisonous sub stances or thorns protecting plants against grazing cattle, or imitative colorations and mimicries, are useful for certain 'purposes'. By way of contrast dynamic teleonomy indicates a directiveness of processes, and here again different phe nomena can be distinguished which are often confused. Each system which at tains a time-independent condition can be described as if its present behavior were dependent on that final state. Contrary to this 'direction of events' is the directiveness based upon structure, meaning that a specific arrangement of structures leads the process in such a way that a certain result is achieved. This clearly applies to the function of man-made machines yielding products desired VI Foreword or performances foreseen but is also true in living systems which are character ized by a structural order of processes widely surpassing all machines in compli cation and evolved in order to maintain the system itself. An important part of these processes is represented by homeostasis, i.e. those processes through which the material and energetical situation of the organism is maintained constant. These regulations are governed, in a wide extent, by feedback mechanisms, as emphasized by cybernetics. There is yet another basis for organic regulations, namely equifinality, i.e. the fact that the same final state can be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways. This is the case in open systems, insofar as they attain a steady state. Thus equifinality is responsible for the primary regulability of living sys tems and supersystems which cannot be based upon predetermined structures or mechanisms, but on the contrary, exclude such mechanisms. They were in for mer times regarded as arguments for vitalism. Nowadays it is already classical wisdom of thermodynamically oriented system-ecology that a state of sufficient nonequilibrium is maintained within living systems and their relations with the environment. Thus state variables like entropy or negentropy and the energy parameter exergy are very useful descriptors and integral measures of ecosystem organization. Finally, there is true finality, meaning that the actual behavior is determined by the foresight of the goal. As such, true purposiveness is, in particular, charac teristic of human behavior, and it is fundamentally connected with the evolution of the symbolism of language and concepts. Equating the phase space of ecological systems with a geographic landscape, there exist multiple stable points and regions, or dynamic regimes, for a system; in switching between them, the system has the capability of undergoing qualita tive change. Evolution implies an ordered succession of such transitions; at many levels autocatalysis seems to be an important "driving mechanism". Resilience is a measure of the ability of a system to absorb changes of state variables, driving variables, and parameters. It is high near the boundaries of a stable regime (i.e. near the maximum sustainable nonequilibrium), where fluctuations abound and stability (qua return to an eqUilibrium state) is low; inversely, high stability gen erally implies low resilience - a system geared to short-term efficiency and pro ductivity. However, evolution seems to further flexibility of systems at all levels; this implies that long-term viability through the development of a capability to deal with the unexpected is favored over short-term efficiency and productivity. Popper's propensity concept with its conditional probabilities is a very promising tool to further and more precisely elucidate the underlying mechanisms. A convenient, if not comprehensive, taxonomy of views regarding sustain ability evolved in the course of discussions. First, the "input-output" view as sumes that the internal dynamics of the ecosystem are more or less in a steady state. Second, the related "state" definition requires simply that a sustainable system be one in which a state can be maintained indefinitely. The "capital" or "stock" view requires the maintenance of natural capital at or above current Foreword VII levels and, thus, that the products of the ecosystem be used at a rate within that system's capacity for renewal. Sustainability is thereby ensured by living off the income rather than the ecological capital. This involves the perpetuation of the character and natural processes of the ecosystem and indefinite maintenance of its integrity without degrading the integrity of other ecosystems. Finally, there is the "potential throughput" view, emphasizing the use of resources within the capacity of those resources to renew themselves. According to this view, sustain ability is defined on the basis of maintenance of potential, so that ecosystems can provide the same quantity and quality of goods and services as in the past. Po tential is emphasized rather than stocks, biomass, or energy levels. In looking for an organizing principle for measuring sustainability, three lev els of activity can be identified. The first level involves determining measure ments of sustainability. By defining the basis for measuring sustainability at the ecosystem or landscape level, the relevant measurements can be aggregated into indicators at the second level. Therefore, it is important to assemble a generic list of indicators of sustainablity to serve as a checklist for determining the cor rect ground for each of the ecosystems. Specific measurements must then be identified for each indicator. However, it is important to define the status of this generic list of indicators at the regional and global levels, and this requires a composite index, which is the third level. Finally, sustainable development is not an ecological problem nor a social problem nor an economic problem, but an integrated feature at all three. This means that effective investments in sustainable development simultaneously retain and encourage the adaptive capabilities of people, of business, and of nature (Holling v. Schumpeter). The effectiveness of those capabilities can tum the same unexpected event into an opportunity for one system or a crisis for another. Adaptive capacities are dependent on processes that permit renewal in society, economies, and ecosystems. For nature, it is the structure of the bio sphere; for business and people, it is usable and useful knowledge; and for soci ety as a whole, it is trust. This is what this book is all about. It is divided into four main sections, ad dressing various problems of, and suggested solutions to, tht: complex problems of an integrated, systemary environmental management. Chapter 2 is devoted to ecosystem development; Chapter 3 deals with the philosophical basis of the goal function and orientors concepts; Chapter 4 presents problems of combining natu ral and human orientors; and, finally, Chapter 5 covers eco targets as goal func tions in environmental management. May this broad coverage help focus the interest of environmentalists, planners and policy makers alike on the all important environmental issues facing modem life. Kiel, November 1997 Prof. Dr. Otto Franzle Preface Goal Functions, Orientors and Eco Targets may be considered as elements of an interdisciplinary effort that attempts to utilize and couple principles of ecosystem research and ecological systems theory with human systems and environmental management. The Salzau workshop on ecological goal functions, in autumn 1996, was devoted to the fields of ecosystem research, general and applied ecol ogy, economy, philosophy and sociology. It was a stimulating opportunity to discuss ecosystem theoretical concepts with an interdisciplinary group of scien tists. Four work groups have elaborated important components of the workshop schedule. Their results have been integrated into the introductions and conclu sions of the single chapters. It was generally agreed that a joint meeting of different disciplines is of great importance for the development of a unifying concept that combines the holistic ecological theory with environmental practice. Furthermore, the discussion showed clearly that it is an urgent necessity to start an intensive mediation proc ess between these potential partners. The general opinion substantiates that we are ready to use the data and results of ecosystem research in a suitable and sound way. However, the corresponding basic ideas can only develop and cope with reality if there is a constant and in tense dialogue between different theories and between theory and planning practice. Publishing the workshop results, we hope that the reader will profit from an initial inter- and intra-scientific exchange. We wish to thank the Federal Ministry for Education, Research, Science and Technology for the kind and efficient support of the workshop and this volume. We also thank all the persons who were involved in the Salzau-meeting, those contributing with a paper, those taking part at the vivid discussions, and those supporting the organization of the meeting and this book: Guiseppe Bendoric chio, Mario Catizzone, Villy Christensen, Uta Eser, Irene Gabriel, Ursula Gaedke, Folke Gunther, Benno Hain, Stefanie Hari, Eugene Krasnov, Bai-Lian Li, Sabine Ludwigshausen, Alessandro Marani, Kati Mattern, Georg Schulze- X Preface Ballhorn, Tim Uhlenkamp, Wiebke Wewer, Wilhelm Windhorst and Hartmut ZwOlfer. Finally, we like to thank all the persons who did take part in the review process of this book: Robert Alexy, Peter Allen, Jan Barkmann, Guiseppe Ben doricchio, Dieter Birnbacher, Reinhard Bornkamm, Hartmut Bossel, Broder Breckling, Wolfgang Cramer, Klaus Dierssen, Sabine Dittmann, Wolfgang Dombrowski, Uta Eser, Brian Fath, Otto Franzle, Marc Gessner, Giulio Genoni, Ulrich Haber, Susan Haffmanns, Ulrich Hampicke, Robert A. Herendeen, Rainer Hingst, Georg Hormann, Rainer Horn, Sven E. Jj/Jrgensen, Ludger Kappen, Hans Kastenholz, Roman Lenz, Drnitrii O. Logofet, Sievert Lorenzen, Sylvia Opitz, Claudia Pahl-Wostl, Bernhard C. Patten, Harald Plachter, Wolfgang Rath, Heiner Reck, Michael Ruhs, Claus Schimming, Joachim Schrautzer, Wolf Stein born, Milan Straskraba, Robert E. Ulanowicz, Christian Wissel, Wilhelm Wind horst and Roland von Ziehl berg. Kiel, Januar 1998 Maren Leupelt and Felix Muller Contents Chapter 1 Introduction: Targets, Goals and Orientors 1 Targets, Goals and Orientors F. Milller, M. Leupelt, E.-W. Reiche and B. Breckling 1.1 The Variety of Targets 3 1.2 Human Aims: The Central Element of Environmental Conflicts 4 1.3 Environmental Targets: The Goals of Sustainability, Integrity and 5 Health 1.4 Ecological Orientors: Attractors and their Consequences 6 1.5 A Variety of Questions - and a Variety of Positions 8 Chapter 2 The Theoretical Approach: Tendencies of Ecosystem Development 2.1 The Physical Basis of Ecological Goal Functions - 15 Fundamentals, Problems and Questions F. Milller and B. Fath 2.2 Ecological Orientors: Emergence of Basic Orientors in Evolutionary 19 Self-Organization H. Bassel 2.3 Ecological Orientors: Pattern and Process of Succession in Relation 34 to Ecological Orientors U. Broring and G. Wiegleb 2.4 Thermodynamic Orientors: Exergy as a Goal Function in Ecological 63 Modeling and as an Ecological Indicator for the Description of Ecosystem Development S. E. l¢rgensen and S. N. Nielsen 2.5 Thermodynamic Orientors: Exergy as a Holistic Ecosystem Indica- 87 tor: A Case Study 1. C. Marques, M. A. Pardal, S. N. Nielsen and S. E. l¢rgensen 2.6 Thermodynamic Orientors: How to Use Thermodynamic Concepts 102 in Ecology Y. Svirezhev