Eating kangaroo (good) and goat (bad) for rangelands Gordon Grigg University of Queensland During the late 1970s I developed an idea that later became known as ‘sheep replacement for rangelands’. It grew from the realisation, gained during hundreds of hours of low flying on kangaroo surveys, that overgrazing by sheep was turning, or had already turned Australia’s ‘sheep rangelands’ into desert. Seeking an economically productive alternative, I imagined a scenario in which the value of kangaroo meat could be increased enough, by effective marketing, to encourage wool growers to see kangaroos as a resource rather than a pest, and to reduce sheep numbers and, thus, total grazing pressure. The implication was that kangaroo meat would be marketed for human consumption, relying T on its low fat, high protein characteristics, making it a healthier alternative to traditional livestock. Eating wild meat is not a new idea; humans were hunter gatherers until the last 8-10 thousand years. C But the idea of marketing kangaroo meat in the service of land conservation was an idea that was A hard for many people to get their heads around, and a hoped for marketing drive never eventuated. R Now, almost 30 years since the idea was first published, kangaroos are still regarded as pests, kangaroo meat is still undervalued, and rangeland degradation continues apace. Indeed, recent developments are T leading to what will be even more damaging forces driving rangeland destruction. There has indeed S been ‘sheep replacement’, but in many areas it has been by goats. The goat meat industry is booming B and history tells us that the rangelands will suffer further as a result. Additionally, ‘cluster’ fencing, introduced in some areas for wild dog control, is being hailed as a good way to ‘manage’ kangaroos. A The future of the rangelands remains bleak. Key words: drought, cluster fencing, fencing, feral goats, kangaroos as a resource, sustainable harvesting, wild dogs. https://doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2017.001 To make things worse for rangelands, some unsettling changes are underway I have been involved with the RZS for a long time, and It’s not surprising that in our culture, shielded as we are have much admiration for the Forums and their subsequent from the tooth and claw realities of the natural world, publications and other Society activities over many years. concerns have risen about the welfare of the animals so treated. I suspect that nobody here today could be easy We human animals have been eating other animals in their mind about catching a flying-fox and snapping its throughout our evolution, so there’s nothing unnatural wing bones so that it can’t escape but at least it can then about it. Throughout our evolution as hunter-gatherers be kept alive for a few hours, or perhaps even a few days, we ate other animals routinely. We evolved as omnivores. until it’s time to eat it, but that’s certainly been common Early on, the animals in our diet were taken from the practice for many people for many thousands of years. wild. We foraged for plants and captured the animal contribution to our diet out in the bush or from the As well as animal welfare, we’re also all concerned about swamps, rivers and the sea. With the domestication conservation of species and conservation of the land. This of plants and animals which led to the agricultural is a bit of a luxury of course, enjoyed by people in developed revolution, and which came about 8½ to 10 thousand countries, as you all realise, and I won’t extend that point years ago, only very late in human evolution, humans in more detail, but it does bring me to the topic of my talk, abandoned hunter-gathering for farming, and a which is about kangaroos. They’re harvested of course for consequence of that is that there has been an enormous leather and also for food, early on mainly for pet food, but increase in human populations. A further consequence is now increasingly for human consumption as well. that humans can no longer survive by hunter-gathering. With the high populations has come, of necessity, The harvesting is sustainable. There have been many the development of high-intensity food production. studies showing that and a lot of long-term monitoring; Domestication has led to feedlots for cattle, pigs and nearly 40 years of it. The harvesting of free-range critters chickens kept at high densities; factory farming. by a head shot is more humane than the processes by Australian 146 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 2017 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Eating kangaroo and goat which many domesticated animals are raised, transported of seeing kangaroos only as a pest, they would come to see and slaughtered. There are concerns about the survival them as a resource. This would require good marketing of young at foot, but that is becoming addressed with an and I suggested that a meat price rise of three to five times increasing focus on shooting only the males. There’s no would be necessary. The idea subsequently became known doubt that eating kangaroo meat is natural. Aboriginal as “Sheep replacement therapy for rangelands’. Australians have been doing it for thousands of years, and also the meat is superior to other red meats in terms of Putting forward a proposal like that, of course led to a lot human health. Also, the harvest of free-range kangaroos of criticism, and led me, and supportive colleagues in the is much more acceptable than growing animals for food in RZS such as Mike Augee and Dan Lunney, into having batteries or in feedlots. to respond to attacks from various sides. RSPCA was generally supportive, but there was, inevitably, criticism What I am going to talk about is a different motivation from animal rights organisations and that continues. for harvesting kangaroos, that is, still for food, but in the Some landholders also took exception, because I was service of land conservation, rangeland conservation, mentioning land degradation (and blaming them). because that is where my particular interest lies, and many of you will know that over many years I’ve been So the RZS organised a substantial public Forum, at the campaigning in support of redefining kangaroos from a University of New South Wales, inviting speakers from woolgrowers’ pest to a woolgrowers’ resource. every interest group. And a jolly day was had by all, even with a band of protesters chanting outside. Naturally, with The argument was and is that if woolgrowers in the sheep Dan Lunney involved, it was published, and the publication rangelands could get significant income from the kangaroos remains a very useful document (Lunney and Grigg 1988). on their land, they could keep fewer sheep and thereby reduce the total grazing pressure on their land. I saw that Over the next several years I took every opportunity as a conservation positive, and I still do. The idea that to speak to graziers. It became a campaign. I talked in kangaroo harvesting could be made to serve rangeland all states and with many grazier organisations and took conservation came from flying kangaroo surveys over every opportunity to speak. The ideas became very well Australia’s sheep rangelands, initially in South Australia but aired and the people that I talked to, the audiences that also in Queensland and New South Wales and, twice, we I talked to always responded politely, often positively and managed to assess populations across the whole geographic sometimes even warmly, but there was always a caveat: IF range of the harvested species in Australia. the price gets high enough……. With plenty of time to look out the window as I flew The idea stimulated a workshop on the general topic long transects at low level while the observers counted, of using a sustainable wildlife harvest as a conservation I had plenty of opportunity to observe the surrounding tool (Pople and Grigg 1994), as a component of a countryside from 76 m above it. Early on, I was struck - symposium “Conservation Biology in Australia and no, more than struck - I was appalled by the extent of the Oceania”, hosted by the University of Queensland’s then land degradation I saw and, what’s more, it was absolutely, Centre for Conservation Biology (CCB) in 1991. The indisputably, clearly a consequence of overgrazing by recommendations from the workshop generated a set sheep. I felt there had to be a better way, and I thought of general principles that should guide decisions about about it for a while and talked about it with a lot of wildlife harvest and these were later embodied in the people, and finally put out those ideas in an article for The Australasian Wildlife Management Society’s position Australian Zoologist, which was actually a transcript of a paper on the Sustainable Commercial Use of Wildlife. talk I had given at an RZS meeting (Grigg 1987). A second symposium hosted by the University of So the idea I am talking about is not new, it has been around Queensland’s CCB in 1994, “Conservation through for many years and has been well publicised, but it is worth Sustainable use of Wildlife” focussed directly on the general having it rehearsed a little just here. What the article was topic (Grigg, Hale and Lunney 1995) and included several arguing in 1987 was that even though there was already a important papers focussing on kangaroo harvesting. lot written about kangaroo harvesting, the idea of hitching it to aspirations for land conservation was a new facet. The specific concept of woolgrowers being able to The article was essentially a recommendation to initiate a supplement income from kangaroos, and reducing sheep marketing drive to make hither-to undervalued kangaroos numbers and, thus, total grazing pressure has been explored so valuable that landowners would start to see them as by two practical studies which attempted to implement the a marketable product that they could make money out concept, both supported financially by the Rural Industries of instead of just giving them away to the shooters. That Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC). These would also give landowners a mechanism for reducing the were George Wilson’s Wildlife Management Conservancy number of sheep they were carrying, thus reducing the projects under a Sustainable Wildlife Enterprises (SWE) heavy impact their sheep were making on their land. They initiative, and Michael Archer’s FATE (Future of Australia’s could reduce total grazing pressure and, of course, instead Threatened Ecosystems) project. Australian 2017 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 147 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Grigg George Wilson’s model, as expressed by Wilson and piece written by Queensland’s Sunday Mail journalist Daryl Mitchell (2004) was to engage groups of landholders Passmore and published October 25, 2015. with an interest in communal management of wildlife resources and habitat protection to come together to form The thrust of it was that Australians should “eat more sub catchment cooperatives called Wildlife Management kangaroo to help drought-hit farmers”. “…tens of thousands Conservancies (WMC) that can benefit financially from of the marsupials are reducing sheep and cattle numbers to their conservation activities. The plan was implemented virtually zero as the ravenous mobs devour precious pasture at two locations, the Maranoa Wildlife Management and water needed to feed stock.” A group of southwestern Conservancy in the Maranoa-Balonne catchment near Queensland mayors were said to be “lobbying Federal Mitchell, Queensland and the Murray-Darling Rangeland Agriculture Minister Barnaby Joyce to kickstart a campaign to Conservancy located on the Murray River near Wentworth boost consumption.” in NSW. The Maranoa Kangaroo Cooperative continues to operate and makes a small annual profit from its Quilpie Mayor Stuart McKenzie was quoted as saying “If chillers. However, it has not delivered the income stream there was a return to the grazier that the kangaroos could be to its major shareholder, the Landcare group, nor fostered harvested (sic), we would look at them in a different light. It the wider conservation benefits and other benefits to changes the dynamic from a pest,’’ landholders (George Wilson pers. comm. 4 July 2016). The article went on to lament that within a week after The FATE project (Ampt and Baumber 2010) aimed to rain “you will have thousands of them and they will eat the ‘explore the sustainable use of native species and ecosystems grass clear and move on”, that from a quota of 5 million to generate conservation benefits. It concentrated on the a year only 1.8 million kangaroos were harvested, that management and commercial harvest of kangaroos, but also kangaroos may outnumber sheep five to one, and that explored consumer attitudes to eating kangaroo meat, the kangaroos starve to death in the drought. opportunities and barriers to achieving conservation through sustainable use, the feasibility of the use on native mammals Simply put, because of the drought, Australians were as pets and the potential of regional bio-energy strategies to being urged to ‘eat more kangaroos to help out drought-struck drive improved natural resource management through native farmers’. But no conservation dimension was implied, the agroforestry’. The FATE trial was in the Barrier Ranges urging was aimed at pest control, a means to reduce the near Broken Hill (Cooney 2009), also under the SWE number of kangaroos in favour of their sheep and cattle. umbrella of the RIRDC. So, not much has changed in recent years. Kangaroos are Full marks to both groups for initiative, and the published still seen mainly as a pest, harvesting continues, surveys of documentation and reports are important, additive and well the populations continue, quotas are set but not reached, worth reviewing, including the model proposed by Cooney, and overseas markets are fragile for a variety of reasons. And Baumber and Ampt (2008). It is unfortunate, however, even though kangaroo has become better established as a that neither seems to have been a resounding success. On meat for local consumption (e.g. it can now be purchased the other hand, the lack of a price rise for kangaroo meat, from many supermarkets) and even though it is exported which I saw as a necessary pre-condition, must have been to many countries, it remains one of the cheaper meats, a serious drawback. There was already a good harvest for despite its many healthy properties (a red meat suitable for leather, but the meat price was, and is, quite low. cardiac patients for example) and even though the supply is, in comparison to other red meat, quite limited. To my perception, the low price is anomalous; it reflects history, geography, and a relentlessly negative campaign So, is there a future for ‘Sheep Replacement Therapy for against kangaroo harvesting, including a lot of fallacious Rangelands’? In 1987 I was optimistic that it was an idea claims about health and disease issues. In a wide ranging whose time had come. Well, it still has not. symposium dealing with potential conservation benefits of wildlife harvesting (Lunney and Dickman 2002) I listed And, to make things worse for rangelands, some unsettling many suggestions about kangaroo meat’s many positives changes are underway: that would be grist to the mill of any competent marketing campaign; a very good product with limited availability, The ‘sheep replacement therapy’ idea was developed at and over which Australia has the monopoly (Grigg 2002). a time when there were many more sheep than there are And in 2007 I retired and spent the next seven years now; about 160 million then, about 70 million now and, writing a book about the biology of crocodylians, so proportionally, fewer are grown for wool. That trend is kangaroos had a reduced occupancy in my head. typical worldwide because the wool price has fallen but, according to Keith Woodford, the problem in Australia But what brought me back into it was a newspaper article is exacerbated because land degradation has left the that was sent to me by Dan Lunney not long before this rangelands less productive (Woodford 2010). Much land symposium. Under a headline “Queensland drought: The used previously for wool growing now grows beef. unusual way we can help our struggling farmers” was a Australian 148 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 2017 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Eating kangaroo and goat Two new developments are very alarming: Flinders Ranges every year between 1978 and 2002 on our annual kangaroo surveys in South Australia, and I’d never • an explosion in goat harvesting and farming and noticed goat tracks. There were so many in March 2015 that it rang alarm bells and when I got home and brought • a new fencing strategy, designed to control wild dogs. myself up to date I discovered that goats have become a really large industry, and increasing. Goats have become On aerial surveys for kangaroos, we were certainly aware the main source of income for many, many properties, of there being many, many feral goats, often in very large particularly in New South Wales. There has certainly been herds, and we worried about it because of the additional a lot of ‘sheep replacement’, but by goats, not kangaroos! damage they would be inflicting on the landscape. My And no rangeland ‘therapy’ can be expected. direct involvement in kangaroo counting ceased in 2002 and up until then at least, people were treating goats Some properties focus on harvesting feral, that is, free mostly as pests and trying to keep their numbers low. range goats, others farm them, contained within fences. An article by journalist Julie Power in Queensland Country I retired in 2007 and my main focus became writing a Life (June 9, 2015) described a free-range enterprise (Fig. book about crocodiles. Soon after the book was published 4) near Bourke, NSW which has an annual income of early in 2015 my wife and I went on a trip to the Flinders up to $5 million from a harvest of 150,000-200,000 feral Ranges and I was astonished at the number of goats we goats. The article reported that the owner of the property saw (Figs 1, 2), both on and off the national park. Not buys them for about $1.70/kg live weight and exports then only were the animals themselves conspicuous in the for $4.70, about $55 per goat. In contrast, on a property landscape, so were their tracks (Fig. 3). I’d been in the near Pooncarie, NSW they are farmed (Fig. 5). The Fig. 1. Feral goats in the Flinders Ranges, South Australia, March 2015 (photo Gordon Grigg). Fig. 3. Goat tracks. Flinders Ranges, South Australia, March 2015 (photo Gordon Grigg). Fig. 2. Feral goats in the Flinders Ranges, South Australia, Fig. 4. Feral goats herded on a property near Bourke, Marc.h 2015 (photo Gordon Grigg). NSW, 2015 (from Queensland Country Life, June 9, 2015). Australian 2017 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 149 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Grigg farming operation was described in an article in The Land newspaper by Simone Norrie and Nick Heydon (28 May, 2014). The farm’s production in 2012 was 20,000 goats at $3.10 /kg carcass weight, but it was noted that prices and off take do vary with the amount of rainfall and pasture. The owner enthused about the benefit of raising goats; “There’s no crutching, marking or drenching; the only upkeep is keeping the fences up.” There wouldn’t be with kangaroos either, and there’d be no need to ‘keep the fences up’ either. The distribution of feral goats pretty well overlaps the sheep rangelands (Fig. 6). Australia’s feral goat population has increased from 1.4 million in 1997 to 4.1 million in 2008, and in 2010 there were an estimated 3.3 million feral goats in the rangelands (Pople and Froese 2012). A lot of the increase in goat numbers has been in NSW (Fig. 7). Perhaps surprisingly, although Australia is one of the smallest consumers of goat meat it is the world’s largest exporter (MLC Fact Sheet, 2013). Most of the export is to the USA with Bahrain and the UAE next, and about 90% of the goats are sourced from feral populations. It is easy to hear opinions that goats have kept lots of former woolgrowers afloat. In the article in Queensland Fig. 5 Farmed goats herded on a property near Pooncarie, Country Life mentioned above, the National Party NSW, 2014 (from “The Land”, May 28, 2014). member for the NSW State Electorate of Barwon, which Fig. 6 Distribution and density of feral goats, 2001 (from Pople and Froese 2012. (Copyright State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2012.) Australian 150 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 2017 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Eating kangaroo and goat Fig. 7 Feral goat numbers in four States from 1984-2011 (from Pople and Froese 2012). (Copyright State of Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, 2012.) includes Bourke, Walgett and Broken Hill, and covers dry conditions often catches properties carrying more about the top left hand quarter of NSW, is quoted as sheep or cattle than is reasonable; the same will happen recognising the importance of goats in ‘holding together with goats. It is easy to feel sorry for land owners whose many communities in the region’. support from wool growing has collapsed, and easy to understand their enthusiasm for taking the opportunity And yet there is a Threat Abatement Plan for Competition goats present. However, experience both overseas and and Land Degradation by Unmanaged Goats, that is, by here suggests that goats will eventually push the ‘sheep’ feral goats. Isn’t it ironic, and concerning, that a major rangelands yet another step towards being a seriously and growing industry in what was once called ‘the unproductive desert. It is not hard to see goats out- sheep rangelands’ is now based on an animal that is competing kangaroos, and kangaroos themselves may known to be an environmental hazard. According to the become under serious threat when and where goat Background Document to the TAP (Threat Abatement populations are high. Plan) “Competition and land degradation by feral goats are listed as a key threatening process under the Environment The second major threat is something called cluster Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC fencing. I don’t know how many of you have heard Act). Of the threatened species listed under the EPBC Act, of cluster fencing, but there is a large and growing unmanaged goats are considered a threat to 8 species of birds, trend towards controlling wild dogs by a few properties 3 mammals, 1 insect and 44 plant species, with 2 of the plants combining resources and/or applying for funds to fence (Acacia unguicula and a Pultenaea species) considered off a cluster of properties, maybe 10 properties; one of critically endangered (see Appendix A of the current TAP).” them is as large as 40 properties. The aim of it is to control wild dogs but the fences are kangaroo-proof as The three threatened mammals are rock wallabies, but well (Fig. 8) and it has been pointed out that they will at what densities do goats pose a threat to kangaroos? make it much easier to manage kangaroos too. The The focus of the TAP is on ‘unmanaged goats’, but they management technique for kangaroo management is comprise by far the bulk of the populations, and by far not indicated, and people in the kangaroo industry are the bulk of goats exported. And it is worth noting that apparently not very happy about it, as you can imagine. there is no control over goat stocking rates on private land, which the ‘managed goats’ are unable to depart So, I think these are two major threats to Australia’s from when pastures fail in dry conditions. The onset of rangelands. Already damaged by more than 100 years of Australian 2017 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 151 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Grigg additive or supplement that would lead to a positive result from a drug test. This apparently is a big issue. And the article reminded me yet again of my frustration that nobody has ever made a really serious effort to market kangaroo meat as a niche product directly to the sort of people who might best benefit from it, people recovering from cardiac surgery, for example, or who are at risk of heart problems, because it is a healthy, low fat, high protein meat. That would be a big market. And what is the potential of marketing kangaroo meat to athletes wanting access to good, high-quality red meat without the saturated fat complication? What a strong marketing tool it would be to advertise Aussie athletes as being powered by kangaroo. I think that quite appealing. What about footballers? Maybe somebody should suggest that to Jarryd Hayne. I see Fig. 8 A predator control fence; part of a cluster fencing he’s not doing quite so well lately. Perhaps somebody project near Morven, Queensland. The people are both should send him over some kangaroo. inside the fence, which is not dug into the ground but has a well sprung apron at ground level on the outside. So perhaps there is still some potential for getting a (Photo Tony Pople). conservation benefit from harvesting kangaroos, unless of course the goats win. And for those among you thinking intensive grazing by sheep, instead of the kangaroo-led that I must be a really hard bastard to argue in support recovery I hoped for it seems we will have a goat-led further of harvesting kangaroos, please note that I flew aerial deterioration such as happened around the Mediterranean. surveys of kangaroos for 30 years and the thrill of seeing kangaroos bounding about in their natural habitat has With these new threats added to the old ones, is there never left me. And if harvesting some of them humanely, any future for the concept of ‘sheep replacement taking the top off a population which will otherwise lose therapy for rangelands’? Well, who knows? There are many from starvation in the next drought, could also be plenty of kangaroos, certainly enough to form the basis assisting land owners to lower stock densities and reduce of a sustainable industry at a much higher level than total grazing pressure while improving their bottom line, at present. The current low harvests are a reflection of that would be wildlife and landscape management of low prices for the meat. Could the price of kangaroo which Australians could be proud. meat ever get high enough to encourage graziers, landowners, to see kangaroos as a resource rather than a pest, and favour kangaroos over goats? Well, a couple Acknowledgements of years ago I saw in a newspaper a report that our I am grateful to Dan Lunney for being a very good swimming team in Japan was having trouble finding sounding board and a source of encouragement and meat about which they could be certain contained no constructive feedback over many years. References Ampt, P., Baumber, A. 2010. Building Cooperation and Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Collaboration in the Kangaroo Industry: Towards a role for Arts. 2008. Background document for the threat abatement landholders, RIRDC Publication No. 10/013, (pp. 1 - 138). Barton, plan for competition and land degradation by unmanaged goats, ACT, Australia: Rural Industries Research and Development DEWHA, Canberra. Corporation. (pdf in kangaroo folder). Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Cooney, R., Baumber, A., Ampt, P. 2008) A Co-op for Arts. 2008. Threat abatement plan for competition and land Kangaroos: Involving Landholders in Kangaroo Management. degradation by unmanaged goats, DEWHA, Canberra. 15th Biennial Australian Rangeland Society Conference ARS 2008, Australia: Australian Rangeland Society. Grigg, G. C. 1987. Kangaroos- a better economic base for our marginal grazing lands? Australian Zoologist 24(1):73-80. Cooney, R. 2009. Landholder collaboration in wildlife management: models for landholders to share benefits from Lunney, D. and Grigg, G. (eds). 1988. Kangaroo harvesting kangaroo harvesting. Rural Industries Research and Development and the conservation of arid and semi-arid lands. Special Edition of Corporation, Canberra, Australia. Australian Zoologist 24: 121-93. Australian 152 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 2017 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table Eating kangaroo and goat Grigg, G. C. 1995. Kangaroo harvesting for conservation of Meat and Livestock Australia. 2013. Fast facts – Australia’s rangelands, kangaroos and graziers. Pp161-165 in Conservation goat meat Industry. through the sustainable use of wildlife, edited by G.C. Grigg, D. Lunney and P.T. Hale. Centre for Conservation Biology, The Pople, A.R. and G.C. Grigg. 1994. Commercial use of wildlife University of Queensland. for conservation. Workshop report, Pp363-366 in Conservation Biology in Australia and Oceania, edited by C. Moritz and J. Grigg, G. C., P.T. Hale and D. Lunney. 1995. Conservation Kikkawa. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW through the sustainable use of wildlife. Centre for Conservation Australia Biology. The University of Queensland. Pople, A. R. and Froese. 2012. Distribution, abundance and Grigg, G.C. 2002. Conservation benefit from harvesting harvesting of feral goats in the Australian rangelands 1984-2011. kangaroos: status report at the start of a new millennium. A Final report to the ACRIS Management Committee. paper to stimulate discussion and research. Pp 52-76 in A Zoological Revolution: Using native fauna to assist in its own survival, Wilson, G and Mitchell, B. 2005. Implementation of edited by D. Lunney and C.R. Dickman. Royal Zoological Sustainable Wildlife Enterprise Trials: Plans for Wildlife Society of New South Wales, Mosman and The Australian Management Conservancies and supporting projects that will test Museum, Sydney, NSW Australia. if trial conservation-based enterprises can be an incentive to restore on-farm habitat. Rural Industries Research and Development Lunney, D. and Dickman, C.R. 2002. A Zoological Revolution: Corporation, Canberra, Australia. Using native fauna to assist in its own survival. Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman and The Australian Woodford, K. 2010. https://keithwoodford.wordpress. Museum, Sydney, NSW Australia. com/2010/02/22/why-have-all-the-sheep-gone/ (accessed 20 June 2016) Australian 2017 Zoologist volume 39 (1) 153 Theme Edition: Zoology on the Table