FM 5-434 Field Manual * No. 5-434 Headquarters Department of the Army Washington, DC 15 JUNE 2000 Earthmoving Operations Contents Page PREFACE ..................................................................................................................v Chapter 1 MANAGING EARTHMOVING OPERATIONS .......................................................1-1 Project Management ...............................................................................................1-1 Equipment Selection ...............................................................................................1-1 Production Estimates ..............................................................................................1-1 Material Considerations ..........................................................................................1-2 Zones Of Operation ................................................................................................1-6 Chapter 2 DOZERS .................................................................................................................2-1 Description ..............................................................................................................2-1 Blades .....................................................................................................................2-2 Clearing and Grubbing Operations .........................................................................2-3 Sidehill Excavations ................................................................................................2-9 Operation Techniques ...........................................................................................2-11 Dozer Production Estimates .................................................................................2-18 Ripping Production Estimates ...............................................................................2-23 Safety Precautions ................................................................................................2-26 Chapter 3 SCRAPERS ............................................................................................................3-1 Description ..............................................................................................................3-1 Production Cycle .....................................................................................................3-2 Production Estimates ..............................................................................................3-9 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. *This publication supersedes FM 5-434, 26 August 1994, and FM 5-164, 30 August 1974. FM 5-434 Page Chapter 4 GRADERS .............................................................................................................4-1 Grader Components ...............................................................................................4-1 Road and Ditch Construction .................................................................................4-2 Earth- and Gravel-Road Maintenance ...................................................................4-8 Snow Removal .....................................................................................................4-10 Asphalt Mixing ......................................................................................................4-10 Operation Techniques and Tips ...........................................................................4-11 Production Estimates ...........................................................................................4-14 Safety ...................................................................................................................4-15 Chapter 5 LOADERS ..............................................................................................................5-1 Description .............................................................................................................5-1 Attachments ...........................................................................................................5-1 Use .........................................................................................................................5-3 Selection ................................................................................................................5-3 Operation ...............................................................................................................5-3 Production Estimates .............................................................................................5-8 Safety ...................................................................................................................5-10 Chapter 6 FORKLIFTS ...........................................................................................................6-1 Use .........................................................................................................................6-1 Operation Techniques ............................................................................................6-1 Safety .....................................................................................................................6-2 Chapter 7 CRANES ................................................................................................................7-1 Basic Crane Unit ....................................................................................................7-1 Hoisting Operations ................................................................................................7-7 Pile Driver .............................................................................................................7-11 Clamshell .............................................................................................................7-12 Dragline ................................................................................................................7-15 Safety ...................................................................................................................7-20 Chapter 8 HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS ................................................................................8-1 Description .............................................................................................................8-1 Excavation Techniques ..........................................................................................8-2 Operation Techniques ............................................................................................8-3 Small Emplacement Excavator with a Loader Bucket ............................................8-4 Track-Mounted Excavator ......................................................................................8-8 Production Estimates .............................................................................................8-8 ii FM 5-434 Page Chapter 9 AIR COMPRESSORS AND PNEUMATIC TOOLS ...............................................9-1 Air Compressors ....................................................................................................9-1 Compressed-Air Uses ............................................................................................9-4 Air Manifolds ..........................................................................................................9-5 Pneumatic Tools ....................................................................................................9-6 Safety ...................................................................................................................9-17 Chapter 10 HAULING EQUIPMENT ......................................................................................10-1 Dump Trucks ........................................................................................................10-1 Equipment Trailers ...............................................................................................10-6 Chapter 11 SOIL-PROCESSING AND COMPACTION .........................................................11-1 Soil Processing ....................................................................................................11-1 Soil Compaction ...................................................................................................11-7 Chapter 12 ROAD SURFACING ............................................................................................12-1 Surface Treatment ...............................................................................................12-1 Surfacing Equipment ............................................................................................12-1 In-Place Mixing Equipment ..................................................................................12-8 Bitumen Handling and Dedrumming Equipment ..................................................12-9 Support Equipment ............................................................................................12-10 Chapter 13 SAFETY ...............................................................................................................13-1 Safety Program ....................................................................................................13-1 General Safety Rules ...........................................................................................13-1 Operator Indoctrination ........................................................................................13-2 Operator Qualifications and Requirements ..........................................................13-2 Equipment Inspection ...........................................................................................13-2 Repairs and Maintenance ....................................................................................13-2 Guards and Safety Devices .................................................................................13-3 Signals .................................................................................................................13-3 Ropes, Cables, and Chains .................................................................................13-3 Equipment Loading ..............................................................................................13-6 Equipment Transporting .......................................................................................13-7 Night Operations ..................................................................................................13-7 Excavations ..........................................................................................................13-7 Chapter 14 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION .....................................................................14-1 Preoperations Checklist .......................................................................................14-1 Personnel-Preparation Checklist ..........................................................................14-2 iii FM 5-434 Page Spill-Response Plan .............................................................................................14-2 APPENDIX A METRIC CONVERSION CHART ...........................................................................A-1 GLOSSARY .........................................................................................GLOSSARY-1 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................BIBLIOGRAPHY-1 INDEX ........................................................................................................................1 iv Preface This field manual (FM) is a guide for engineer personnel responsible for planning, designing, and constructing earthworks in the theater of operations. It gives estimated production rates, characteristics, operation techniques, and soil considerations for earthmoving equipment. This guide should be used to help select the most economical and effective equipment for each individual operation. This manual discusses the complete process of estimating equipment production rates. However, users of this manual are encouraged to use their experience and data from other projects in estimating production rates. The material in this manual applies to all construction equipment regardless of make or model. The equipment used in this manual are examples only. Information for pro- duction calculations should be obtained from the operator and maintenance manuals for the make and model of the equipment being used. Appendix A contains an English-to-metric measurement conversion chart. The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommenda- tions on Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028 directly to United States Army Engi- neer School (USAES), ATTN: ATSE-DOT-DD, Directorate of Training, 320 Engineer Loop Suite 336, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri 65473-8929. Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men. v Chapter 1 Managing Earthmoving Operations Earthmoving may include site preparation; excavation; embankment construction; backfilling; dredging; preparing base course, subbase, and subgrade; compaction; and road surfacing. The types of equipment used and the environmental conditions will affect the man- and machine-hours required to complete a given amount of work. Before preparing estimates, choose the best method of operation and the type of equipment to use. Each piece of equipment is specifically designed to perform certain mechanical tasks. Therefore, base the equipment selection on efficient operation and availability. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 1-1. Project managers must follow basic management phases to ensure that construction projects successfully meet deadlines set forth in project directives. Additionally, managers must ensure conformance to safety and environmental-protection standards. The basic management phases as discussed in FM 5-412 are— • Planning. • Organizing. • Staffing. • Directing. • Controlling. • Executing. EQUIPMENT SELECTION 1-2. Proper equipment selection is crucial to achieving efficient earthmoving and construction operations. Consider the machine’s operational capabilities and equipment availability when selecting a machine for a particular task. The manager should visualize how best to employ the available equipment based on soil considerations, zone of operation, and project-specific requirements. Equipment production-estimating procedures discussed in this manual help quantify equipment productivity. PRODUCTION ESTIMATES 1-3. Production estimates, production control, and production records are the basis for management decisions. Therefore, it is helpful to have a common method of recording, directing, and reporting production. (Refer to specific, Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-1 FM 5-434 equipment production-estimating procedures in the appropriate chapters in this manual.) PRODUCTION-RATE FORMULA 1-4. The most convenient and useful unit of work done and unit of time to use in calculating productivity for a particular piece of equipment or a particular job is a function of the specific work-task being analyzed. To make accurate and meaningful comparisons and conclusions about production, it is best to use standardized terms. unit of work done Production rate = -------------------------------------------------- unit of time • Production rate. The entire expression is a time-related production rate. It can be cubic yards per hour, tons per shift (also indicate the duration of the shift), or feet of ditch per hour. • Unit of work done. This denotes the unit of production accomplished. It can be the volume or weight of the material moved, the number of pieces of material cut, the distance traveled, or any similar measurement of production. • Unit of time. This denotes an arbitrary time unit such as a minute, an hour, a 10-hour shift, a day, or any other convenient duration in which the unit of work done is accomplished. TIME-REQUIRED FORMULA 1-5. The inverse of the production-rate formula is sometimes useful when scheduling a project because it defines the time required to accomplish an arbitrary amount of work. unit of time Time required = -------------------------------------------------- unit of work done NOTE: Express the time required in units such as hours per 1,000 cubic yards, hours per acre, days per acre, or minutes per foot of ditch. MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS 1-6. Depending on where a material is considered in the construction process, during excavation versus after compaction, the same material weight will occupy different volumes (Figure 1-1). Material volume can be measured in one of three states: • Bank cubic yard (BCY). A BCY is 1 cubic yard of material as it lies in its natural/undisturbed state. • Loose cubic yard (LCY). A LCY is 1 cubic yard of material after it has been disturbed by an excavation process. • Compacted cubic yard (CCY). A CCY is 1 cubic yard of material after compaction. 1-2 Managing Earthmoving Operations FM 5-434 1 cubic yard in natural 1.25 cubic yards after 0.9 cubic yards after conditions (BCY) digging (LCY) compaction (CCY) Figure 1-1. Material-Volume Changes Caused by Construction Processes 1-7. When manipulating the material in the construction process, its volume changes. (Tables 1-1 and 1-2, page 1-4, give material-volume conversion and load factors.) The prime question for an earthmover is about the nature of the material’s physical properties; for example, how easy is it to move? For earthmoving operations, material is placed in three categories—rock, soil (common earth), and unclassified. • Rock. Rock is a material that ordinary earthmoving equipment cannot remove. Fracturing rock requires drilling and blasting. After blasting, use excavators to load the rock fragments into haul units for removal. • Soil. Soils are classified by particle-size distribution and cohesiveness. For instance, gravel and sands have blocky-shaped particles and are noncohesive, while clay has small, platy-shaped particles and is cohesive. Although ripping equipment may be necessary to loosen consolidated deposits, soil removal does not require using explosives. • Unclassified. The unclassified (rock-soil) combination is the most common material found throughout the world. It is a mixture of rock and soil materials. SOIL PROPERTIES 1-8. In an earthmoving operation, thoroughly analyze the material's properties (loadability, moisture content, percentage of swell, and compactability) and incorporate this information into the construction plan. Soil preparation and compaction requirements are discussed in Chapter 11. Loadability 1-9. Loadability is a general material property or characteristic. If the material is easy to dig and load, it has high loadability. Conversely, if the material is difficult to dig and load, it has low loadability. Certain types of clay and loam are easy to doze or load into a scraper from their natural state. Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-3 FM 5-434 Moisture Content 1-10. Moisture content is a very important factor in earthmoving work since moisture affects a soil’s unit weight and handling properties. All soil in its natural state contains some moisture. The amount of moisture retained depends on the weather, the drainage, and the soil’s retention properties. Mechanical or chemical treatment can sometimes change the moisture content of a soil. Refer to Chapter 11 for information about increasing and decreasing the soil’s moisture content. Table 1-1. Material Volume Conversion Factors Converted To Material Type Converted From Bank (In Place) Loose Compacted Sand or gravel Bank (in place) — 1.11 0.95 Loose 0.90 — 0.86 Compacted 1.05 1.17 — Loam Bank (in place) — 1.25 0.90 (common earth) Loose 0.80 — 0.72 Compacted 1.11 1.39 — Clay Bank (in place) — 1.43 0.90 Loose 0.70 — 0.63 Compacted 1.11 1.59 — Rock (blasted) Bank (in place) — 1.50 1.30 Loose 0.67 — 0.87 Compacted 0.77 1.15 — Coral Bank (in place) — 1.50 1.30 (comparable Loose 0.67 — 0.87 to lime rock) Compacted 0.77 1.15 — Table 1-2. Material Weight, Swell Percentages, and Load Factors Loose Bank (Pounds Per Swell (Pounds Per Material Type Cubic Yards) (Percent) Load Factor Cubic Yard) Cinders 800 to 1,200 40 to 55 0.65 to 0.72 1,100 to 1,860 Clay, dry 1,700 to 2,000 40 0.72 2,360 to 2,780 Clay, wet 2,400 to 3,000 40 0.72 3,360 to 4,200 Earth (loam or silt), dry 1,900 to 2,200 15 to 35 0.74 to 0.87 2,180 to 2,980 Earth (loam or silt), wet 2,800 to 3,200 25 0.80 3,500 to 4,000 Gravel, dry 2,700 to 3,000 10 to 15 0.87 to 0.91 2,980 to 3,450 Gravel, wet 2,800 to 3,100 10 to 15 0.87 to 0.91 3,080 to 3,560 Sand, dry 2,600 to 2,900 10 to 15 0.87 to 0.91 2,860 to 3,340 Sand, wet 2,800 to 3,100 10 to 15 0.87 to 0.91 3,080 to 3,560 Shale (soft rock) 2,400 to 2,700 65 0.60 4,000 to 4,500 Trap rock 2,700 to 3,500 50 0.66 4,100 to 5,300 NOTE: The above numbers are averages for common materials. Weights and load factors vary with such factors as grain size, moisture content, and degree of compaction. If an exact weight for a specific material must be determined, run a test on a sample of that particular material. 1-4 Managing Earthmoving Operations FM 5-434 Percentage of Swell 1-11. Most earth and rock materials swell when removed from their natural resting place. The volume expands because of voids created during the excavation process. After establishing the general classification of a soil, estimate the percentage of swell. Express swell as a percentage increase in volume (Table 1-2). For example, the swell of dry clay is 40 percent, which means that 1 cubic yard of clay in the bank state will fill a space of 1.4 cubic yards in a loosened state. Estimate the swell of a soil by referring to a table of material properties such as Table 1-2. Compactability 1-12. In earthmoving work, it is common to compact soil to a higher density than it was in its natural state. This is because there is a correlation between higher density and increased strength, reduced settlement, improved bearing capacity, and lower permeability. The project specifications will state the density requirements. SOIL WEIGHT 1-13. Soil weight affects the performance of the equipment. To estimate the equipment requirements of a job accurately, the unit weight of the material being moved must be known. Soil weight affects how dozers push, graders cast, and scrapers load the material. Assume that the volumetric capacity of a scraper is 25 cubic yards and that it has a rated load capacity of 50,000 pounds. If the material being carried is relatively light (such as cinder), the load will exceed the volumetric capacity of the scraper before reaching the gravimetric capacity. Conversely, if the load is gravel (which may weigh more than 3,000 pounds per cubic yard), it will exceed the gravimetric capacity before reaching the volumetric capacity. See Table 1-2 for the unit weight of specific materials. NOTE: The same material weight will occupy different volumes in BCY, LCY, and CCY. In an earthmoving operation, the basic unit of comparison is usually BCY. Also, consider the material in its loose state (the volume of the load). Table 1-1 gives average material conver- sion factors for earth-volume changes. LOAD FACTOR 1-14. Use a load factor (see Table 1-2) to convert the volume of LCY measured to BCY measured (LCY· load factor = BCY). Use similar factors when converting material to a compacted state. The factors depend on the degree of compaction. Compute the load factor as follows: If 1 cubic yard of clay (bank state) = 1.4 cubic yards of clay (loose state), 1 then 1 cubic yard of clay (loose state) = -------- or 0.72 cubic yard of clay (bank state). 1.4 In this case, the load factor for dry clay is 0.72. This means that if a scraper is carrying 25 LCY of dry clay, it is carrying 18 BCY (25 x 0.72). Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-5