EE AA RR TT HH SS CC II EE NN CC EE The Physical Setting Thomas McGuire Earth Science Educator A M S C O S C H O O L P U B L I C AT I O N S , I N C . 3 1 5 H u d s o n S t r e e t , N e w Yo r k , N . Y. 1 0 0 1 3 This book is dedicated to the thousands of students I have known in 32 years of teaching. I hope they have learned nearly as much from me as I have from them. The publisher would like to thank the following teachers who reviewed the manuscript. Dr.James R.Ebert Bernadette Tomaselli Professor,Earth Science Education Science Department Chair SUNY College at Oneonta Lancaster High School Oneonta,New York Lancaster,New York Howard Gottehrer Gary Vorwald Former Earth Science Teacher Science Department Chair Martin Van Buren High School Paul J.Gelinas Junior High School Queens Village,New York Setauket,New York Thomas Lewis Earth Science Mentor Monroe BOCES #2 Rochester,New York Editor:Margaret Pearce Text and Cover Design:Mel Haber Composition:Northeastern Graphic,Inc. Art:Hadel Studio Cover Photo:Getty Images,Inc.Herbert and Bow Lakes,Banff National Park,Canada Please visit our Web site at: www.amscopub.com When ordering this book,please specify R 797 HorEARTH SCIENCE:THE PHYSICAL SETTING,HARDBOUND ISBN 978-0-87720-196-0 Copyright © 2005 by Amsco School Publications,Inc. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 09 08 07 To the Student Earth Science: The Physical Setting, which follows the New York State Core Curriculum, is an introduction to the study of Earth Science. With this book, you can gain a firm understanding of the fundamental concepts of Earth Sci- ence—a base from which you may confidently proceed to fur- ther studies in science and enjoy a deeper appreciation of the world around you.You also will need to become familiar with the Earth Science Reference Tables, a document prepared by the New York State Education Department.You will find the individual tables within the appropriate chapters of this text. You can obtain a copy of the entire document from your teacher or it can be downloaded from the State Education Web site (www.nysed.gov). This book is designed to make learning easier for you. Many special features that stimulate interest, enrich under- standing, encourage you to evaluate your progress, and en- able you to review the concepts are provided.These features include: 1. Carefully selected,logically organized content.This book offers an introductory Earth Science course stripped of unnecessary details that lead to confusion. It covers the New York State Core Curriculum for the Physical Setting—Earth Science. 2. Clear understandable presentation. Although you will meet many new scientific terms in this book,you will find that the language is generally clear and easy to read. Each new term is carefully defined and will soon become part of your Earth Science vocabulary. The illustrations and photographs also aid in your understanding, since they, like the rest of the content, have been carefully de- signed to clarify concepts.Words in boldface are defined iii iv EARTHSCIENCE in place and in the Glossary. Words in italics are impor- tant science words you already should know. 3. Introduction. An introductory section at the beginning of each chapter sets the stage for the rest of the chapter. 4. Step-by-step solutions to problems followed by practice. Problem solving is presented logically,one step at a time. Sample solutions to all types of Earth Science problems are provided. These sample problems will help you approach arithmetic problems logically. To enhance your newly acquired skill, you will find practice problems following most sample problems. 5. End-of-chapter review questions. The Regents-style, multiple-choice questions at the end of each chapter help you to review and assess your grasp of the content. The open-ended questions provide practice in answering ques- tions found in Part B-2 and Part C of the Regents exam. 6. Appendices. Appendix A introduces you to laboratory safety.In Appendix B,you will be presented with a format to follow when preparing laboratory reports. Appendix C reviews the International System of Units. Appendix D lists the physical constants important to Earth Science. Appendix E explores the use of graph in science. 7. Glossary. This section contains all the boldfaced words found in the text along with their definitions. The study of Earth Science can be both stimulating and challenging, The author sincerely hopes that this book will increase your enjoyment of this science. Contents 1 THE SCIENCE OF PLANET EARTH 1 What Is Science? / What Is Earth Science? / How Is Earth Science Related to Other Sciences? / Why Study Earth Science? / Observations, Measurement, and Inferences / How Is Density Determined? / Using Graphs in Science / Technology in Earth Science Activities:Good Science and Bad Science, Exponential Notation in the Real World, Making Estimations, Making a Graph of the Revolution of the Planets, An Internet Scavenger Hunt Labs:Densities of Solids, The Thickness of Aluminum Foil 2 EARTH’S DIMENSIONS AND NAVIGATION 30 What Is Earth’s Shape? / What Are Earth’s Parts? / How Is Location Determined? Activities:How Round is Earth? Pie Graphs of Earth’s Spheres, Interpreting Reference Tables, Determining Your Latitude, Finding Solar Noon, Determining Your Longitude, Reading Latitude and Longitude on Maps 3 MODELS AND MAPS 55 What Is a Model? / What Are Fields? / What Is a Topographic Map? Activities:Models in Daily Life, A Map to Your Home, Making a Water Compass, Magnetic Declination, Characteristics of Isolines, Drawing Isolines, A Temperature Field, Making a Topographic Model, Reading Your Local Topographic Map, A Profile on a Local Topographic Map, Planning a Trip, Interpreting Isoline Maps, Rescue and Evacuation Planning 4 MINERALS 82 What Are Minerals? / What Are the Properties of Minerals? / What are the Most Common Minerals? Activities:Solids, Liquids, and Gases;Luster of Common Objects;Breakage of Household Substances;Separating Minerals by Panning;Mineral Identification 5 THE FORMATION OF ROCKS 112 What Is Classification? / What Are Rocks? / How Are Igneous Rocks Classified? / What Is the Bowen Reaction Series? / What are Sedimentary Rocks? / How Do Metamorphic Rocks Form? / What Is the Rock Cycle? v vi EARTHSCIENCE Activities:Classification, Making a Rock Collection, Identification of Igneous Rocks, Identification of Sedimentary Rocks, Identification of Metamorphic Rocks 6 MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES 143 What Is a Natural Resource? / What Are Nonrenewable Resources? / What Are Renewable Resources? / How Can We Conserve Resources? / What Are the Effects of Environmental Pollution? Activities:Establishing a Local National Park, Adopt a Resource, Water Use in the Home 7 EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR 163 What Causes Earthquakes? / How Are Earthquakes Measured? / How Do Earthquakes Radiate Energy? / How Are Earthquakes Located? / What Is Inside Earth? Activities:Adopt an Earthquake, Modeling Seismic Waves 8 PLATE TECTONICS 193 Do Continents Move? / What Is Earth’s Internal Structure? / Does Earth’s Geography Change? Activities:Matching Shorelines, Graphing Hawaiian Volcanoes, Zones of Crustal Activity 9 GEOLOGIC HAZARDS 221 What Is A Geologic Hazard? Activities:Designing an Earthquake Preparedness Plan, Adopt a Volcano 10 WEATHERING AND SOILS 239 What Is Weathering? / How Does Soil Form? Activities:Rock Abrasion, Calculating Surface Area, Reaction Rate and Surface Area, Chemical Weathering and Temperature 11 EROSION AND DEPOSITION 257 What Is Erosion? / What Is Deposition? / Equilibrium of Erosion and Deposition Activities:Graded Bedding, What’s in Sediment? 12 RIVER SYSTEMS 278 What Is a River System? / How Do We Measure Streams? / What Is a Drainage Pattern? Activities:Drainage of the School Grounds, Modeling a Stream System, Measuring Stream Discharge, Water Velocity, Measuring Stream Velocity CONTENTS vii 13 GROUNDWATER 298 Where Is Earth’s Water? / Groundwater Zones / How Does Groundwater Move? / Where Is Groundwater Available? / What Are Some Groundwater Problems? Activities:Groundwater Model, Comparing the Porosity of Different Materials, Groundwater and Sediments, Demonstrating Capillarity, Capillarity of Sediments 14 GLACIERS 320 A Puzzling Landscape / What Is a Glacier? / How Do Glaciers Cause Erosion? / How Can We Recognize Deposition by Glaciers? / How Can We Recognize Deposition by Meltwater? / What Are Ice Ages? Activities:Snow to Ice, A Model of a Glacier, Inventory of Glacial Features 15 LANDSCAPES 340 New York’s Natural Wonders / What Are Landscapes? / What Factors Influence Landscape Development? / What Are the Landscapes of New York State? Activities:Local Landforms, Landscape Boundaries, Landforms of New York State 16 OCEANS AND COASTAL PROCESSES 356 The Blue Planet / What Makes Ocean Water Different? / How Can We Investigate the Oceans? / How Does the Water in the Ocean Circulate? / What Are Tides? / How Do Coastlines Change? / How Should We Manage Active Shorelines? Activities:Water on the Planets, The Density of Seawater, Observing Gyres, Extremes of Tidal Ranges, Graphing Tides, Coastlines and Human Intervention, Zoning for Coastal Preservation 17 UNRAVELING GEOLOGIC HISTORY 383 Unraveling Mysteries / How Can We Determine the Sequence of Events? / How Can We Interpret Geologic Profiles? / How Do Geologists Establish Absolute Time? Activities:Relative and Absolute Time, Local Rock Features, Symbols and Rocks, A Model of Radioactive Decay 18 FOSSILS AND GEOLOGIC TIME 413 Dinosaurs / What Are Fossils? / How Did Life Begin on Earth? / What Is Organic Evolution? / How Has Geologic Time Been Divided? / Geologic History of New York State / How Do Geologists Correlate Rock Layers? Activities:Nearby Fossil Beds, Interpreting Fossil Footprints, Variations Within a Species, An Extinct Species, Geologic Time Line viii EARTHSCIENCE 19 WEATHER AND HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE 444 Weather / What Are the Elements of Weather? / How Does the Sun Warm Earth? / How Does Solar Energy Circulate Over Earth? Activities:Making a Thermometer, Making a Barometer, Measuring Wind, Making a Wind Gauge and Wind Vane, Extremes of Weather, Recording Weather Variables, Visit a Weather Station, Observing Refraction Labs:Angles of Insolation, Conduction 20 HUMIDITY, CLOUDS, AND ATMOSPHERIC ENERGY 483 Let It Snow / How Does the Atmosphere Store Energy? / How Does the Atmosphere Absorb Water Vapor? / How Do We Measure Water in the Atmosphere? / How Do Clouds Form? Activities:Rate of Evaporation, Extracting Moisture From Air, A Stationary Hygrometer, The Effect of Compression and Expansion on Air Temperature, Homemade Clouds, The Height of Clouds Lab:Observing Latent Heat 21 AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS 516 Fast as the Wind / What Causes Winds? / Why Do Local Winds Occur? / What Causes Regional Winds? / What are Jet Streams? / What Are Isobaric Maps? Activities:The Weight of Air, The Force of Air Pressure, Air Pressure and a Soda Can, Pressure and Depth, Observing Convection, Movement of Pressure Systems, Surface Wind Patterns 22 WEATHER MAPS 541 Weather Forecasting / What Are Air Masses? / What Are Mid-Latitude Cyclones and Anticylones? / How Are Weather Fronts Identified? / How Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Evolve? / How Are Weather Data Recorded? / How Are Weather Maps Drawn and Used? Activities:Identifying Air Masses, Stages of Cyclonic Development, Current Station Models, Drawing Weather Fronts, Reliability of Weather Forecasts, Making Daily Weather Reports 23 WEATHER HAZARDS AND THE CHANGING ATMOSPHERE 571 The Cost of Natural Disasters / What Weather Events Pose Hazards? / How Can We Protect Ourselves From Weather Hazards? / How Is Earth’s Atmosphere Changing? Activities:Lightning Distance, Storm Survival, A Local Weather Event, Hurricane Tracking, A Model of a Tornado, Comprehensive Emergency Planning, Community Planning Map CONTENTS ix 24 PATTERNS OF CLIMATE 600 Are Climates Changing? / What Is Climate? / How Does Latitude Affect Climate? / What Other Geographic Factors Affect Climate? / What Geographic Features of New York State Affect the Local Climate? / How Is Climate Shown on Graphs? Activities:Locating Deserts and Rain Forests, Climates and Ocean Currents 25 EARTH, SUN, AND SEASONS 628 Our Internal Clock / What Is Astronomy? / How Can We Describe the Position of Celestial Objects? / What Is the Sun’s Apparent Path Across the Sky? / How Does the Sun’s Path Change With the Seasons? / Does the Sun’s Path Depend on the Observer’s Location? / What Is Really Moving, Sun or Earth? / How Do Earth’s Motions Affect the Appearance of Other Celestial Objects? / Why Do the Stars Seem to Change Their Positions? Activities:The Length of a Shadow, Constructing a Sundial, Observing the Sun, Locate a Foucault Pendulum, Modeling Earth Motions, The Big Dipper and Polaris, Adopt a Constellation, Locating major Constellations, Photographing Star Trails, Celestial Observations 26 EARTH AND ITS MOON 661 The Race for the Moon / What Is the History of Earth’s Moon? / How Can We Describe Orbits? / What Determines a Satellite’s Orbit? / Why Does the Moon Show Phases? / What Is an Eclipse? Activities:Lunar Survival Kit, Orbit of the Moon, The Next Eclipses, Modeling the Moon’s Phases 27 THE SOLAR SYSTEM 685 Colonizing Space / What Is the Origin of the Solar System? / What Properties Do the Planets Share? / How Are the Planets Grouped? / What Other Objects Orbit the Sun? Activities:Graphing Solar System Data, Design a Landing Module, The Solar System to Scale, Planetary Travel Agency 28 STARS AND THE UNIVERSE 709 The Search for Extraterrestrial Life / What Is a Star? / How Are Stars Classified? / How Do Stars Evolve? / How Do Astronomers Study Stars? / What Is the Structure of the Universe? / What Is the History of the Universe? / What Is the Future of the Universe? Activities:Light Intensity and Distance, Making Light, Making a Telescope, Making a Spectrum, Demonstrating the Doppler Effect, A Model of the Big Bang x EARTHSCIENCE APPENDICES 737 Appendix A:Laboratory Safety, Appendix B:A Format for Laboratory Reports, Appendix C:The International System of Units, Appendix D:Physical Constants, Appendix E:Graphs in Science GLOSSARY 743 INDEX 757 PHOTO CREDITS 774