Earth and Us Population - Resources - Environment - Development Edited by Mostafa Kamal Tolba Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya and Asit K. Biswas President, International Society of Ecological Modelling, Oxford, UK ΓΠ L J T T E R W Q R TH l" |E I Ν Ε Μ Α Ν Ν Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8EJ ^ PART OF REED INTERNATIONAL PLC. OXFORD LONDON GUILDFORD BOSTON MUNICH NEW DELHI SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO TORONTO WELLINGTON All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 33-34 Alfred Place, London, England WC1E 7DP. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the Publishers. First published 1991 © United Nations Environment Programme, 1991 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Earth and Us: Population-resources-environment-development. 1. Economic development. Environmental aspects I. Tolba, Mostafa Kamal II. Biswas, Asit K. 330.9 ISBN 0-7506-1049-2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Earth and Us: Population-resources-environment-development/ edited by Mostafa Kamal Tolba, Asit K. Biswas, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7506-1049-2: 1. Economic development-Environmental aspects. 2. Developing countries-Economic policy. 3. Developing countries-Population. I. Tolba, Mostafa Kamal. II. Biswas, Asit K. HD75.6.P66 1990 90-2547 33.7-dc20 CIP Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Laser Quay, Rochester, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain by Courier International Ltd., Tiptree, Essex Preface Ever-increasing human activities have put a considerable strain on the earth's resources, both renewable and non-renewable. Equally, the sheer scope and scale of these activities throughout the globe have started to affect and sometimes seriously to distort the earth's delicate natural mechanisms, which had attained a balance developed over a prolonged period of time. Many recent scientific studies now clearly indicate that the earth's "homeostatis" is now faced with increasing danger. Neither on the individual nor on the communal level has humanity ever sought expressly to disrupt these delicate balances. In the past, we were often not aware of the long-term impacts of the various cumulative human activities. But the latter, whatever their purpose or intent, have ultimately all contributed to this result. Thus, we are now paying for the results of our past ignorance or inaction. But with the tremendous increase in our knowledge-base during the recent past, we can now predict the overall environmental impacts of human actions with much more certainty than was possible even two short decades ago. It is crucial for us to use the opportunity this represents. Future generations must not find our present activities to be at the root of their environmental problems. There are very close and intricate interrelationships between population, resources, environment and development. Changes in one affect the others, positively or adversely. Some of these changes are immediately visible, others may take a long time before they can be discerned. In the past, in our pursuit of development, too much emphasis was placed on economic growth and not enough on the environmental impacts of such growth rates and patterns. To achieve this "growth" the earth's resources were plundered, with little thought for the future. Today, however, few would argue that our past practices should be allowed to continue unchanged or that such practices are sustainable. Indeed, the results of our past practices are all around us. We can easily observe the extent and magnitude of numerous disturbances at global, regional, and national levels. For example, biological diversity is rapidly diminishing, and this will undoubtedly have a major impact on food availability and health for future generations. Ozone depletion, climatic changes, accelerated desertification, rapid deforestation in the tropics and sub-tropics, and extensive pollution of our air and water resources are all major environmental problems humankind is facing at present because of some of our past unsustainable actions and practices. vii viii Preface In the present text we have attempted to bring together the ideas and thoughts of some of the leading international statesmen, political leaders, economists and environmentalists, on the complex interlinkages between "earth and us". The various chapters examine aspects of the nexus between population, resources, environment and development, and outline their views on what can be done in the future. Thus, this book is designed to complement existing texts which deal with similar subjects, such as "Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000", 'Our Common Future", and other important publications by the various United Nations Agencies, World Bank, World Resources Institute and Worldwatch Institute. We expect the book to contribute to the overall debate for the further clarification of various complex environmental issues, and also to enhance the environmental consciousness of the world. Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to all the eminent people who have taken time from their extremely busy schedules to prepare the various chapters. For this we are truly grateful. Asit K. Biswas President International Society for Ecological Modelling Oxford, England Mostafa Kamal Tolba Executive Director United Nations Environment Programme Nairobi, Kenya Environment and development Kenneth D. Kaunda President of the Republic of Zambia Basic overview The global environment is an interconnected web. The links that exist among the natural systems of air, water, land and living biota are often global. Undue disturbance of any one of them can have unexpected results that are remote in both space and time. The human race relies completely on the environment and therefore we must manage it wisely. The prosperity of nations and individuals is dependent upon the quality of the environment and the availability of natural resources. Yet, it is principally human activities that degrade the global environment and contribute to the depletion of the world's natural resource base. Our future health and wellbeing depend on our ability to manage the earth's environment successfully. The population of sub-Saharan Africa is growing faster than that of any other region of the world. Although total agricultural output has risen, it has not kept pace with population growth. Per capita agricultural production and per capita food production have both fallen consistently over the past 20 years, resulting in increased poverty and malnutrition. More than 100 million people are presently acutely malnourished. Given that 71% of the labour force is in agriculture, and that 77% of the population live in rural areas, the health, nutrition and income of the majority of Africans are inseparably linked to agriculture. In a continent where the use of fertilizers, irrigation and new improved seeds is the lowest in the world, agriculture depends on the health of the environment and vice versa. Africa's environment is not naturally favourable to agriculture. The soils are relatively poorer - 55% have severe fertility constraints. In addition, many African soils have limited water retention capacities and are highly susceptible to erosion. Sub-Saharan Africa shares with other tropical regions the problems of rain that falls predominantly in erosive downpours, the stresses that dry seasons place on vegetation, the high temperatures that accelerate decomposition of organic matter, and the absence of a cold winter to kill the pests and reduce disease. Rainfall is highly variable and prolonged drought is a constant threat. Human activites have degraded the already fragile natural resources base. Traditional agricultural systems - shifting cultivation and nomadic pastoralism - used abundant land for only a limited time before abandoning it, a practice that allowed natural restoration of the land through long periods of inactivity. Fallow periods, due to increasing population density, have been reduced greatly in many areas and are no longer sufficient to restore fertility or provide adequate grazing or ι 2 Environment and development fuelwood. In many countries, crop yields are stagnant or declining, fallow land and farmland are overgrazed and fuelwood needs are met by depleting the stock rather than replanting. Vegetation cover is weakened, runoff increases erosion and top soil is irrevocably lost, further reducing soil fertility and continuing the downward spiral. In many developing countries, recognition for social economic change has been placed on agro-related development despite numerous drawbacks. Concepts of development In direct recognition of the need to diversify their national economies, many developing countries have devoted much emphasis on developing their consider- able natural resources base. Strong bias has been laid towards the development of agriculture. The coordination of development activities within a comprehensive ecological framework is necessary if there is to be an overall betterment of social conditions of life in the developing world. The concept of 'development' cannot be absolutely defined since its basis is a contrasting comparison between one set of nations and another. In this context, development should be considered a relative, and therefore open-ended, term whose area of empirical reference lies beyond that essential threshold which sustains minimum conditions of viability for the environment as a system, whether it be the organism or the society. In this context, therefore, 'development' is the absence of conditions of under-development. It should be defined in terms of its functional implications. A minimum definition of 'development' is that it involves a conscious and deliberate intervention into the empirical status quo ante, a purposive action to alter sets of conditions within the environment, as in attempts to improve food supply or in any other institutional area of human endeavour. The world has recognized that developing its environmental resources is an intervention in the affairs of nature, and, therefore, it tends to have consequences both intended and unintended. Development programmes are elements in the ecological dialect in which all life is interrelated and must be examined as such. All technological innovations in agriculture, industry or medicine tend to upset the balance of nature or the natural order. Since nature is never in a static equilibrium (because the interrelationships between its physical and biological components are endlessly changing), the real problem is not how to maintain the balance of nature, but rather how to change it in such a way that the overall result is favourable for the human population and other forms of life. Environmental resources: the base and the options Agricultural resources Earlier approaches were aimed only at increasing output, both livestock and crops, in terms of total gross production, as distinct from total gross production per capita. Through a carefully thought-out policy of pricing, incentives and subsidies on agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and seeds, the developing world should be able Environment and development 3 to prop up small-holder farmers whose contribution is well above 60% of the national output of many countries. The policy of placing emphasis on small-scale farmers has other social, political and economic benefits. However, this is currently being threatened given the increasing trend towards removal of subsidies on inputs in a number of countries. With the increasing emphasis on agriculture in many developing countries, to provide the fulcrum of economic advance, fundamental issues have to be addressed. Agriculture is dependent on such ecological processes as soil regeneration and nutrient recycling. The processes are particularly endangered when efforts to increase productivity are conducted without due regard to the need for conservation as a management practice. A major obstacle in the Third World's drive for agriculture is that despite there being distinct areas of good soil, much of the land is of poor fertility with a soil structure that is susceptible to erosion. Population pressure in localized areas of many countries both in terms of humans and livestock is aggravating the problem of soil erosion. Rangeland degradation, a result of overgrazing and soil erosion, is becoming a severe constraint in increasing livestock numbers. Nutrient deficiencies and imbalance are now becoming a global concern. Some heavily fertilized soils are actually experiencing declining yields, mainly due to heavy doses of fertilizers intended to increase productivity, but which have actually acidified the soil. In view of these observations, and with regard to the global overall objective of increasing agricultural production on a sustainable basis, certain measures should be considered. There is a need to update a global interagency study to determine those areas of worst soil erosion and obtain basic data on losses. Investigations on soil conservation techniques such as specific cover crops, crop rotation, fertilizers, contour tilling, minimal tillage and others, so as to define which are most appropriate to the needs of different farming systems of the world; and to define methods, especially those which demand less labour, financial arrangements and incentives for their implementation. This will involve strengthening the institutions dealing with the environment to increase their capabilities for soil conservation research and land capability studies in their respective regions. Other measures include a more integrated extension policy, with workers having a basic knowledge of conservation techniques that should be imparted to the farmer, and encouragement of community participation in conservation works. As regards rangeland degradation, greater attention to rangeland management as well as other livestock matters, both in extension and farmer training, is an important necessity. Forest resources Studies of forest resources worldwide have been poorly coordinated and hampered by expensive and inefficient technology. For these reasons global data on forests are controversial. Some of the most comprehensive statistics are more than a decade out of date. However, what is indisputable is that the scale and rate of utilization and destruction are far higher than estimates make them. It has been observed that the global forest estates are capable of providing a wide range of benefits, with the necessary planning for development. It should be noted 4 Environment and development further that forest industries do have a multiplier effect in economic development, providing rural employment and many opportunities for forward linkage. Unfortunately, forest industries in many countries are no closer to realizing this potential. Many countries continue to be net importers of reconstituted forest products and pulp and paper despite having sizeable forest estates. The demand for forest products is increasing at such an alarming rate that the overall effect has been massive deforestation. Deforestation, particularly in many developing nations, is closely associated with traditional types of farming such as lopping of trees and subsequent burning to derive ash which is known to contain sizeable plant nutrient requirements. This results in shifting cultivation. After nutrients are depleted, the cycle is repeated, leaving vast dustbowls. Energy requirements, particularly in the rural areas of many countries and including the urban poor, remain dependent on wood and woodfuel with consequent deforestation. In procuring charcoal or firewood, large areas are being deforested, given the lack of acceptable alternatives. A major cause of woodland loss also includes large-scale clearing of forests for settled agriculture. When carried out on the wrong types of soils, such clearance has had serious ecological consequences. Other causes of forest degradation include overgrazing, insofar as it inhibits woodland regeneration after fuelwood cutting or clearance of any sort. Late dry season burning in savannah-type climates, which sometimes is conducted to maintain pasture, can spread easily when out of control and kill regenerating seedlings. In riverine forests, along headwaters of streams where vegetation cover is necessary for maintaining water flow, this can be particularly destructive. Several effects of deforestation have been identified. Vegetation cover is a prerequisite for a balanced hydrological regime. Deforestation results in a litter layer that soon decays making it difficult for water to infiltrate the soil. Hence, rainfall runoff increases which, in turn, causes floods and leaves the soil behind relatively dry; thus poor use is made of the little available moisture. In addition, these floods sweep soils into river beds thereby making them shallower and shallower. In the southern hemisphere most rivers are drying up as a result of this action. Uncontrolled runoff exacerbates soil erosion made worse by the use to which the cleared land is subjected. Other environmental costs of deforestation not directly associated with soil and water conservation include loss of genetic diversity, shelter and loss of potential economic income. This brief outline makes obvious the fact that sustainable development of agriculture, energy supplies, water supply and distribution, as well as certain industries, at least in part, are dependent upon the wise management of forest resources. Nations have recognized the role of forest resources and are currently promoting the concepts of farm forestry in order to help make good the problems of soil infertility and erosion. Further, dissemination of knowledge as regards integration with agriculture through agroforestry is being encouraged alongside planned forward linkage to small forest product industries such as bee-keeping and furniture enterprises. Efforts should be made to conduct inventories on forest resources, particularly in areas such as those of prime forests and those suffering severe deforestation. The inventories should provide data on natural forest management research, especially Environment and development 5 for assessing sustainable yields and finding ways of securing regeneration where there is conflict with other land uses, a direct result of population pressure. Further observations should be focused on community forestry, in particular for fuelwood, and in this regard the need for involving increased extension and back-up facilities, as well as applied research into appropriate species and techniques - including soil ameliorating species such as Acacia and Leucaena, should be identified. Research into the ecological consequences of eucalyptus and pine cropping, with a view to defining appropriate succeeding rotation, should also be carried out. Alongside the determination of those critical water catchment areas which are currently suffering deforestation, the definition of measures and adequate woodland cover, and the creation of suitable watershed management plans, nations should analyse various recommendations relating to improving the efficiency of fuelwood use and its substitution by hydro-power, which is abundant in a significant number of countries. Water resources The global emphasis on rapid agricultural development puts water in very high demand, besides its other uses, such as industrial and domestic requirements. The world's development of water resource potential is very great in many areas. However, total irrigated land constitutes a small percentage of the total potential and is presently mostly associated with the developed world. Dam projects have been suggested but the initial planning has not so far been integrated properly in many countries. The basic aims of water development projects have mostly been single purpose, emphasizing hydro-power production or domestic water supply, and totally ignoring, among others, the irrigation potential. Some have had adverse environmental effects with the best example being the Kariba Dam between Zambia and Zimbabwe in Southern Africa. The Kariba Dam has increased the tsetse fly population in the area, i.e. previously uninfested areas are now infested as a result of new vegetation formulations favoured by the tsetse. Fisheries development opportunities remain under-exploited. Soil erosion has been exacerbated by the resettled human population which has been forced on to marginal lands. The human population has so far been unable to adjust to a new single season cropping, after losing the drawdown advantage of double cropping along the Zambezi under natural conditions. Persistent drought conditions exist despite the presence of a large water body, though irrigation could fairly easily be instituted with no more than minimum capital outlay. Conflicts in water use are on the increase with increasing human population and industrial activity; the Kafue River in Zambia is one example but worse examples exist elsewhere. In the copperbelt towns of the north, industrial and mining effluents, as well as sewage, continue to be directly discharged into the river system without treatment. Its headwaters suffer massive deforestation. Agricultural fertilizers and pesticides contribute to the polluting effect. Domestic water needs continue to rise with increasing population. Zambia, however, has realized that the country could experience severe water shortages by the year 2000. The conservation requirements that have become too apparent include the need for better water management practices such as forest land protection and management, grassland management, water harvesting 6 Environment and development techniques and engineering devices such as multipurpose dams, boreholes, etc. These are costly but essential. More specifically, observations indicate that water shortages are a major limiting factor in many agricultural development projects in many countries. Several considerations are now in process and include: (1) Encouraging the development of integrated multi-purpose (irrigation, domes- tic water supply, hydro-power, fisheries) river basins through the construction of wells, boreholes, irrigation channels, dams and pumping installations to capture more benefits. (2) Adopting techniques of rain and runoff harvesting so as to supplement moisture supplies. (3) Conducting studies of water supply and demand in the major river basins (as well as other important river basins) with a view to preparing water resource management programmes, with particular attention paid to pollution loads and dilution factors required to support growing quantitative and qualitative demands for water. (4) Expanding water resource research particularly inventory and pollution monitoring and control so as to generate data for water development and management. Fisheries and wildlife Fisheries The world has a significant potential for increasing food procurement from even the existing fisheries. Fisheries are an environmental resource that not only provide necessary nutrients to humans, but also give employment, among other benefits. However, various problems exist and, briefly, include inadequate knowledge of the potential of the resources and inability to monitor them, which has led to localized over-fishing as well as missed opportunities. Other constraints include unsuitable fishing practices such as using nets and mesh which are too small, spoilage of fish due to poor handling or preservation, inadequate capital investment as well as extension and law enforcement services. To put the exploitation of fisheries on a sustainable basis, certain basic requirements are immediately necessary, notably: (1) Developing the potential for aquaculture so as to make use of farm waste products and decrease pressure on natural fish stocks, bearing in mind associated environmental health problems, if not carefully undertaken. (2) Appraising fish stocks and their biological productivity in most of the water bodies (particularly those upon which many fishermen's livelihood depends and which are suffering reduced yields) and programmes prepared for their improved management. (3) Strengthening research, law enforcement and extension capabilities of the appropriate responsible authorities and conducting investigations of the effects of certain fishing techniques such as pursuing off-shore fish populations on all the major lakes. (4) Initiation of a long-term programme for fisheries, based on the principles of sustainable development.