Dynamics of Skill Acquisition a constraints-Led approach Keith Davids, PhD Queensland university of technology, australia Chris Button, PhD university of otago, new zealand Simon Bennett, PhD liverpool john moores university, united Kingdom Note: This e-book reproduces the text of the printed book, but it may not include images, tables, or figures that have restrictions on electronic distribution. Human Kinetics Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Davids, K. (Keith), 1953- Dynamics of skill acquisition : a constraints-led approach / Keith Davids, Chris Button, Simon Bennett. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-3686-3 (hard cover) ISBN-10: 0-7360-3686-5 (hard cover) 1. Physical education and training. 2. Physical education and training--Psychological aspects. 3. Movement, Psychology of. 4. Human mechanics. 5. Physical fitness. I. Button, Chris, 1973- II. Bennett, Simon, 1970- III. Title. GV342.D28 2008 372.86--dc22 2007020516 ISBN-10: 0-7360-3686-5 (print) ISBN-10: 0-7360-9005-3 (Adobe PDF) ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-3686-3 (print) ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-9005-6 (Adobe PDF) Copyright © 2008 by Keith Davids, Christopher Button, and Simon Bennett All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerog- raphy, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher. 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Box 5076 57A Price Avenue Champaign, IL 61825-5076 Lower Mitcham, South Australia 5062 800-747-4457 08 8372 0999 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Canada: Human Kinetics New Zealand: Human Kinetics 475 Devonshire Road Unit 100 Division of Sports Distributors NZ Ltd. Windsor, ON N8Y 2L5 P.O. Box 300 226 Albany 800-465-7301 (in Canada only) North Shore City e-mail: [email protected] Auckland 0064 9 448 1207 Europe: Human Kinetics e-mail: [email protected] 107 Bradford Road Stanningley Leeds LS28 6AT, United Kingdom +44 (0) 113 255 5665 e-mail: [email protected] This book is dedicated to the ultimate self-organizing social system, my family: my wife, Anna, and my children, Mike, Jake, Charlie, and India Keith Davids For all the researchers past and present whose work has inspired the ideas developed in this book and unknow- ingly shaped our own academic pursuits Chris Button To the many individuals I have had the pleasure and fortune to work with, read of, and listen to, this book is a testament to your efforts and dedication Simon Bennett CONTENTS Preface vii Acknowledgments xi PART I Introduction to Skill Acquisition Theory and the Constraints-Led Approach . . . . . . . . . . 1 CHAPTER 1 Traditional Theories of Skill Acquisition . . . . . . . . . .3 Skill Acquisition: Definition and Theories 4 Common Features of Traditional Theories 17 Implications for Movement Practitioners 21 Summary 27 CHAPTER 2 Physical Constraints on Coordination: Dynamical Systems Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Complex Systems: A Definition 30 Constraints on Complex Systems 32 Emergent Behavior in Human Movement 36 Constraints and Movement Coordination 39 Interacting Constraints 42 Coordination Processes in Human Movement Systems 43 Functional Role of Variability in Movement Systems 48 Summary 51 CHAPTER 3 Informational Constraints on Coordination: An Ecological Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Ecological Psychology and Information 56 Information–Movement Coupling 65 Haptic Information Constraints on Movement 73 Acoustic Information Constraints on Movement 75 Summary 78 CHAPTER 4 Redefining Learning: A Constraints-Led Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 The Perceptual-Motor Landscape 82 Newell’s Model of Motor Learning 85 Practical Issues for Learning 94 Role of the Movement Practitioner: Nonlinear Pedagogy 98 Hands-Off Practitioners 99 Summary 101 v PART II Applying the Constraints-Led Approach. . . . 105 CHAPTER 5 Understanding the Dynamics of Skill Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Constructing the Perceptual-Motor Landscape 108 The Practitioner’s Perspective 117 Summary 126 CHAPTER 6 Dealing With Individual Differences: Implications for a Nonlinear Pedagogy. . . . . . . . .129 Intrinsic Dynamics of the Movement System 130 Variation in Athletic Performance 133 Individual Differences in Practical Settings 141 Developing Decision-Making Skills 147 Summary 150 CHAPTER 7 Organizing Practice to Optimize Learning . . . . . .153 The Constraint of Time in Practice 154 Manipulating Task Constraints in Practice 157 Strategies for Structuring Practice 164 Summary 169 CHAPTER 8 Using Verbal Guidance as an Informational Constraint on Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173 Effectiveness of Verbal Communication Strategies 174 Verbal Communication as a Temporary Informational Constraint 178 Attentional Focus and Verbal Communication 178 Interaction of Verbal Instructions and Feedback 184 Verbal Communication and Movement Disorders 186 Summary 187 CHAPTER 9 Observational Learning as Directed Search . . . . .189 Directed Search and Observational Learning 190 Observational Learning in Social Contexts 192 Visual Perception Perspective on Observational Learning 194 Learner-Regulated Video Feedback 202 Summary 204 CHAPTER 10 Implementing the Constraints-Led Approach: Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 Practice and an External Focus of Attention 208 Dynamics of Learning the Soccer Chip 210 Individual Differences in Amputee Gait 212 Practice Organization for Soldiers 215 Instructions for Student Drivers 217 Modeling to Direct Students’ Learning 219 Glossary 223 References 227 Index 247 About the Authors 251 vi Contents PREFACE Actions in daily activities such as sport and work differ in the nature of the demands they impose on performers. Some actions, like racket sports or driv- ing on an expressway, are performed at high speeds, and others, like rugby, American football, martial arts, and physical therapy, may involve a significant amount of body contact. Many actions require a high degree of precision and accuracy of movement, such as playing golf or performing surgery, whereas others, like ballet dancing and ice-skating, emphasize the challenge of perform- ing graceful, stylized sequences of aesthetic movement. Many activities pit us against the wild elements of nature when hiking, mountaineering, kayaking, or skiing. Despite the huge variety of constraints imposed by various sports and daily activities, one thing they all share is a requirement for performers to coordinate and control movements effectively. Movement practitioners in various physical activities understand that skilled learners are able to (cid:129) produce functional, efficient, and effective movement patterns that appear smooth and effortless; (cid:129) typically demonstrate precise timing between their movements and ongoing environmental events; (cid:129) consistently reproduce patt erns of coordinated movement, even under severe time constraints or competitive pressures; (cid:129) perform movements that are not automated in the sense of being identical from one performance to the next, but are subtly varied and precisely adapted to immediate changes in the environment; and (cid:129) integrate different limb movements into an aesthetically pleasing pattern when necessary. Purpose of the Book Humans operate in information-rich, dynamic environments and require complex coordination patterns to interact with important surfaces, objects, and events. An important challenge for movement scientists is to understand how coordination patterns are assembled, controlled, and acquired. In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the constraints that shape and influence the acquisition of movement skills. Our purpose in this book is to synthesize and elucidate a constraints-led approach to skill acquisition. The study of human movement now bridges many related disciplines, includ- ing motor development, motor control, psychology, biology, motor impairments, vii and physical therapy. Although we attempt to apply our discussion of move- ment as broadly as possible throughout this book, we will often use movement models from sport, exercise, and physical activities as examples to describe key ideas. As sport enthusiasts ourselves, we recognize that movement models from sport can provide particularly rich task constraints in which to study and understand important aspects of movement behavior (Davids, Button, Araújo, Renshaw, & Hristovski, 2006). One of the main objectives of physical educators, sport scientists, movement scientists, psychologists, and physiotherapists is to develop valid conceptual models of human movement behavior that is based on research (Post, Pijpers, Bosch, & Boschker, 1998). The development of a comprehensive model of motor control is necessary before one can consider issues related to learning, but this in itself is not a simple task because “the story of even a simple movement will have intentional, mechanical, informational, neural and muscular chapters” (Michaels, 1998, p. 65). It is becoming clear that a rigorous model of human movement requires a multidisciplinary framework to capture the different interlocking scales of analysis (e.g., neural, behavioral, psychological) and the many different subsystems (e.g., perceptual and move- ment) involved in producing behavior. From a practical perspective, understanding how coordination and control is achieved promotes an informed organization of learning and rehabilitation environments and more effective use of practice and therapy time (Davids & Handford, 1994). Studying these processes in human movement systems is vital for considering issues involved in (cid:129) ergonomic equipment design; (cid:129) organizing and structuring coaching, teaching, and training tasks; (cid:129) planning and managing exercise prescription, therapeutic, and rehabili- tation programs; (cid:129) preventing injury and associated health and safety considerations; (cid:129) understanding the nature of individual differences at various levels of performance; (cid:129) understanding how to transmit information to learners and patients in rehabilitation; (cid:129) getting a feel for children’s movement capabilities at various stages of development; and (cid:129) interpreting movement disabilities and disorders and their effects on perceptual-motor function. A conceptual model of coordination and control is not just important for designing learning environments, it is also important for ensuring that learn- ers have positive experiences when acquiring motor skills. Given the alarm expressed at the lack of physical activity and poor movement competency viii Preface shown in affluent societies (Our Healthy Nation Report, UK Government, 1999; World Health Organization report, 2002; Healthy Eating Healthy Action, New Zealand Ministry of Health Report, 2003), this type of knowledge is vital for the design of physical activity programs to provide the basic skills neces- sary for subelite sport and exercise participation (see also Clark, 1995). The goal of this book is to outline a reliable and comprehensive model of human movement to provide a valid framework (i.e., concepts, methodological tools, and language) through which students and practitioners can understand and address these issues. Organization This book is divided in two parts to facilitate understanding of theoretical and practical concepts. In part I, we describe the theoretical basis of a constraints- led learner model that has emerged within the literature on motor learning. Part II provides several practical implications of the constraints-led approach. We will discuss the relationship between the theoretical concepts introduced in part I and the practical concerns facing the learner and movement practitioner. In part II, we will attempt to bring the constraints-led model to life, especially in chapter 10, where a number of case studies are highlighted. Audience This book is written for people with an interest in movement coordination and control and skill acquisition. This includes movement scientists, sport scientists, psychologists, biomechanists, physiologists, coaches, teachers, physical educators, and physical therapists. Advanced undergraduates with a firm grounding in the traditional theories of motor behavior, beginning postgraduates, and academic faculty will all benefit from an understanding of ecological constraints on movement behavior. The book contains an introduction to many key theoretical ideas that will enhance practical applications. For this purpose, we use examples throughout and case studies in chapter 10 to show how theoretical advances in the natural sciences can help our understanding of the acquisition of movement coordina- tion. Spotlight on Research sidebars and additional readings are presented in each chapter to help readers understand how interacting constraints shape movement behavior. Readers are encouraged to use these features to enhance their learning experience. Preface ix