"Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger": A Story to Defend Folk Literature Presented to the Faculty of the Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures Bryn Mawr College In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelors of Arts By Binglei Yan Advisor: Professor Shiamin Kwa Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania December 2015 Abstract This thesis takes a look at one of the short stories in Feng Menglong's Sanyan collection, "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger." Written during the late Ming dynasty, the story has been typically analyzed by present-day scholars as a political allegory or as a lesson to teach qing, a term which translated alternately as "passions," "love," or "romantic sentiments" in English. Based on the background that the archaic elite literature was advocated through the Ming literary movement called "the restoration of the past" and Feng Menglong, as a follower of key anti-archaists like Wang Yanming, Li Zhi, and Yuan Hongdao, emphasized authentic feelings and spontaneity in literature, this thesis argues that in "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger," Feng Menglong metaphorically defended folk literature by defending Du Shiniang. Through examining the ways in which Feng Menglong praised the courtesan Du Shiniang's spontaneous and sincere nature that embodied in her xia (chivalry) and qing characteristics in the story, it becomes clear that Feng Menglong advocated folk literature as what should be extolled in the late Ming. The thesis concludes by recommending that this Feng Menglong's story is possibly a forerunner of a growing genre in the Qing dynasty which makes it worth for further researches. Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis advisor Professor Shiamin Kwa, who contributed comments at different stages of my thesis's writing course, assisted me finding resources, and aided me framing the argument. I thank Professor Betty Litsinger and Professor Barbara Hall, who went over the thesis's word choices, grammars, and sentence structures with me. I would also like to thank all professors of the East Asian Languages and Cultures department whose classes I have attended and have contributed in parts to the process of writing this thesis. Additionally, I would like to thank my family members, who keep giving me support, and especially my parents, who provide me freedom to choose the major I like and allow me to have the opportunity to write this thesis. Finally, I thank my thesis partners Kristin Weaver and Mengnan Zhang, who offered me suggestions for revision and encouragement, and my best friends Huiqian Tang and Yanjing Liu, who are always concern about the progress of my thesis. Without all these people, I would not be able to achieve the current state of my thesis. Table of Contents Title Page.......................................................................................................................................ⅰ Abstract..........................................................................................................................................ⅱ Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ⅲ Introduction.....................................................................................................................................1 Statuses at Two Poles: Courtesans vs. Literati and Folk Literature vs. Elite Literature..................8 Literary Propositions: Seven Masters vs. Liberal-Minded Scholars.............................................13 "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger": Defending Folk Literature by Eulogizing Spontaneity and Sincerity through Xia and Qing..........................................................................19 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................32 Bibliography...................................................................................................................................35 Yan 1 Introduction Scholars of Chinese literature have argued that the Chinese terminology xiaoshuo小说is closest to but at the same time largely different from the western idea of fiction, which Victor Mair clearly states in his study of Chinese narrative [The] Chinese term for "fiction" is hsiao-shuo [xiaoshuo] (literally, "small talk" or "minor talk"). This immediately points to a fundamental contrast with the English word, which is derived ultimately from the past participle of Latin fingere ("to form" or "to fashion," "to invent"). Where the Chinese term etymologically implies a kind of gossip or anecdote, the English word indicates something made up or created by an author or writer...when a literary piece is declared to be "hsiao-shuo," we are given to understand that it is gossip or report.1 With its original link to the spoken word, Chinese xiaoshuo has gone through two fundamental transitions to become what it is today: first the shift from street talk and gossip to a mature form of storytelling and then the shift from storytelling to the final form of fictional art.2 In order to reach the final stage of the transition, as Mingdong Gu illustrates in his book Chinese Theories of Fiction: A Non-Western Narrative System, a story is required to have surplus values; that is to say beyond the aim of telling an intriguing plot, a story should have some signifying elements which are valuable for further reflection when the tale ends.3 Along with Mingdong Gu's notion, some cases of Chinese xiaoshuo that have attained the status of fictional art are stories which were rewritten from existing ones by literati during the imperial period. When the rewriting process was carried out, both "literally and figuratively 1 Mingdong Gu, Chinese Theories of Fiction: A Non-Western Narrative System (New York: State University of New York Press, 2006), 19-20. 2 Gu, Chinese Theories of Fiction, 67. 3 Gu, Chinese Theories of Fiction, 69. Yan 2 surplus discourse elements that carry surplus signifying values" were added to the original stories.4 Among them, the collection of short folk stories (huaben 话本) that Feng Menglong冯 梦龙 (1574-1646) edited based on originals from the Song, Yuan, and mid-Ming periods, which was later divided into three books called Stories Old and New (Gujin xiaoshuo古今小说), Stories to Caution the World (Jing shi tong yan警世通言), and Stories to Awaken the World (Xing shi heng yan醒世恒言), is thought to be the representative of fictional art.5 The origin of folk stories can be traced back to as early as the second half of the thirteenth century.6 But it is not until the mid-sixteenth century that folk stories were printed in collections, and Sixty Stories (Liushijia xiaoshuo六十家小说), which was published by Hong Pian洪楩 around 1550, is the earliest surviving anthology long before Feng Menglong's Sanyan 三言 came to existence. However, as the editor Hong Pian did not put much effort into arranging those stories written by anonymous writers: the tales in Sixty Stories are organized so loosely that they seem to have been collected without selection. In contrast, Feng Menglong's Sanyan represents "the first self-conscious literati effort to rework folk stories" and to develop them into a literary genre.7 4 Gu, Chinese Theories of Fiction, 121. 5 Stories Old and New is also called Illustrious Words to Instruct the World喻世明言. The book's name was Stories Old and New when it was first published. It was changed to Illustrious Words to Instruct the World later when the book was reprinted as a way to match the Chinese names of the other two books Stories to Caution the World and Stories to Awaken the World. And it is the use of Illustrious Words to Instruct the World that the three books are called Sanyan as a whole. For detailed information, see Feng Menglong, Jing shi tong yan警世通言, ed. Yan Dunyi (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2013), 2. 6 Wilt Idema and Lloyd Haft, A Guide to Chinese Literature (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1997), 212. 7 Shuhui Yang, Appropriation and Representation: Feng Menglong and the Chinese Vernacular Story (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1998), 14. Yan 3 Yan Dunyi, an editor of classical literature in Beijing, once stated that tales in Sanyan are not only interesting but attached with moralistic lessons and undue importance to outward form and strange incidents.8 Most scholars who study Feng Menglong and those who study the folk stories in Sanyan hold the same idea as Yan Dunyi did, and analyze Feng Menglong's works by assigning them with didactic purpose. One of the most famous tales in Stories to Caution the World called "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger" (Du Shiniang nuchen baibaoxiang杜十娘怒沉百宝箱) has gained considerable attention from scholars because of its impressive characters and ideological content.9 According to Patrick Hanan, the story was edited by Feng Menglong based on Song Maocheng's 宋懋澄 (1570-1622) classical Chinese narrative "The Faithless Lover" (Fuqingnong zhuan负情侬传) in Jiuyue ji 九龠集 and must have been rewritten after the year 1619.10 "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger" begins with the prefatory tale which provides context: the main story happened during the twentieth year of the Wanli reign, when Japan invaded Korea. In response to the emergency call for help from Korea, the Ming court sent troops for aid. With the endorsement of the emperor, the Ministry of Revenue incurred the lack 8 The Courtesan's Jewel Box: Chinese Stories of the Xth-XVIIth Centuries, trans. Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang, (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1981), iv. 9 The name of Feng Menglong's story is translated as "Courtesan's Jewel Box" and the courtesan’s name is translated as “Decima” by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang in The Courtesan’s Jewel Box: Chinese Stories of the Xth-XVIIth Centuries, which have been referred by some scholars in their articles. In this essay, I use Yang Shuhui and Yang Yunqin's version since both the translation and the inclusion of interlinear and marginal comments make it closer to the original Chinese text. 10 Patrick Hanan, "The Making of The Pearl-Sewn Shirt and The Courtesan's Jewel Box," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 33 (1973): 125-126; Hanan, The Chinese Short Story: Studies in Dating, Authorship, and Composition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 23, 241. Yan 4 of army provisions and thus opened the National University to any student who could offer tribute in order to make up the shortage. Having the status as a tribute student meant one could enjoy advantages such as the opportunity to study at the National University and the eligibility for the imperial civil service exam. Therefore, large numbers of sons of rich families took advantage of this new expedient track to xiucai 秀才status. Among these tribute students there was one named Li Jia李甲 who falls in love with the celebrated courtesan Du Shiniang杜十娘 when he is at the National University in Beijing.11 Du Shiniang at the same time also loves Li Jia and hopes to devote her life to him. After the two together raise the three hundred taels of silver that is required by the brothel's madam, Du Shiniang gains her freedom and sets off with Li Jia for a new life. When they reach Guazhou, Du Shiniang's singing is overheard by another tribute student Sun Fu 孙富on an adjacent boat. Sun Fu is attracted by Du Shiniang's voice and assumes that the singer must not be an ordinary chaste wife. Thus, Sun Fu tricks Li Jia into exchanging Du Shiniang for a thousand taels. Li Jia thinks the money will allow him to reach a reconciliation with his father and therefore agrees with Sun Fu's suggestion. When Li Jia tells Du Shiniang about the arrangement he has made with Sun Fu, Du Shiniang appears to accept it, but on the next day before getting onto Sun Fu's boat, Du Shiniang commits suicide by throwing 11 For students who wanted to gain the status of xiucai, they had to take the entry-level examinations which were collectively called tongshi童试 and were hierarchically broken down into the county exam, the prefectural exam, and the college exam. Only after passing the college exam that a student could be called as xiucai. The term "tribute student" here is a translation from jiansheng监生 in Chinese. During the Ming dynasty, tribute students mainly included four types: jüjian举监, gongjian贡监, yinjian荫监, and lijian例监. For detailed information, see Zhu Quanfu, Studies of Sanyan and Erpai ("Sanyan,""erpai" yanjiu) “三言”、“二拍”研究 (Guangzhou: Jinan University Press, 2012), 181-182. The character Li Jia here belongs to the fourth category lijian, who offers tribute and pays money, and a jiansheng who studied at the National University automatically had the status of xiucai秀才. Yan 5 herself into the river. While evaluating Feng Menglong's "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger," scholars typically treat it as a political allegory or as a lesson to teach qing情, a term which is often translated alternately as "passions," "love," or "romantic sentiments," since there is no exact English equivalent.12 The first popular opinion results from the fact that scholars focus on the story as a reflection of Feng Menglong's social environment. Feng Menglong lived during the late Ming, a historical period when business and economy developed rapidly in China. The commercial boom incited the accumulation of material wealth and at the same time changed the populace's values; frugality was no longer appreciated and most Ming citizens instead pursued the extravagant and luxurious life style.13 In addition, they overlooked the importance of spiritual discipline and indulged in physical desire and stimulation.14 Based on this background, scholars, such as Zhu Quanfu argues that the tribute student character Li Jia, who buys his way into the National University but is derelict in his duty of studying while seeking pleasure at the courtesans' quarters and lusting for women, embodies the vulgar and decayed atmosphere of the late Ming dynasty.15 12 In my thesis, I use pinyin to represent words in Chinese. But if an author uses Wade Giles in his or her article or book, I will cite whatever the author uses. For example, here I use qing for 情, but later in the paper when I present the quotation, I will use ch'ing for 情 as it originally occurs in the book. 13 Li Xiaojuan, "The Emotional Moral Education of Feng Menglong and the Judgment on Women in 'Sanyan'" (Feng Menglong de qingjiaoguan yu sanyan zhong de nüxing pingjia) 冯梦龙的情教观与三言 中的女性评价 (master's thesis, Hunan Normal University, 2006), 4. 14 Li, "The Emotional Moral Education," 9. 15 Zhu, Studies of Sanyan and Erpai, 189-190. Yan 6 Because Feng Menglong was thought to have compiled the anthology about qing called Qing shi 情史, some scholars view "Du Shiniang Sinks Her Jewel Box in Anger" as a lesson to teach qing. Qing shi, which includes more than 850 tales and anecdotes about love and passion among which nine-tenths have pre-Ming origins, was published around the early seventeenth century.16 The two prefaces to Qing shi, which were written by Feng Menglong and Zhanzhan waishi 詹詹外史, respectively put the anthology's compilership in question. Feng Menglong in his preface "disclaims all credit, asserting that he intended to collect items on the subject but had not the time." In the meantime, Feng Menglong says that Zhanzhan waishi then helped carry out all works for him, and he both appreciates and apologizes for the classification and the selection which Zhanzhan waishi had done.17 Although Feng Menglong's preface seems to indicate Zhanzhan waishi as the compiler, Hua-yuan Li Mowry suggests through her thorough study of Qing shi and Feng Menglong's available works that Zhanzhan waishi is the pseudonym used by Feng Menglong, making Feng Menglong the sole compiler.18 Together with Mowry's claim that Feng Menglong compiled this book about qing, Feng Menglong's declaration in the preface that "I intend to establish a school of ch'ing [qing] to teach all who are living... I hope to reach those others who have an abundance of ch'ing that together we might propagate the teaching of ch'ing" confirms his aim of educating the public with qing.19 In fact Feng Menglong had never 16 Feng Menglong, Chinese Love Stories from "Ch'ing-shih," trans. Hua-yuan Li Mowry (Hamden: Archon Books, 1983), vii, 7. 17 Patrick Hanan, The Chinese Vernacular Story (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 95-96. 18 Mowry, Chinese Love Stories, 24. 19 Mowry, Chinese Love Stories, 13-14.