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REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) 2003 1 Book Chapter 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Human-Centered Shipboard Systems and Operations 5b. GRANT NUMBER 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 5. AUTHORS 5d. PROJECT NUMBER Glenn A. Osga 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION SSC San Diego REPORT NUMBER 53560 Hull St San Diego, CA 92152-5001 9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSOR/MONITOR'S ACRONYM(S) 11. SPONSOR/MONITOR'S REPORT NUMBER(S) 12. DISTRIBUTIONIAVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES This is the work of the United States Government and therefore is not copyrighted. This work may be copied and disseminated without restriction. Many SSC San Diego public release documents are available in electronic format at: http:l/www.spawar.navy.mil/sti/publications/pubs/index.html 14. ABSTRACT This chapter presents a conceptual design process based on the experience with the Multimodal Watchstation (MMWS) project. A significant part of this process lies in the definition of tasks and establishment of key requirements. An HCD focus characterizes tasks in an information system work space according to task qualities and dynamic properties. This task-centered approach drives design thinking toward solving users' needs across a broader spectrum of task types and dynamics than is typically considered by systems designers. Published in Handbook of Human Systems Integration, 2003. Harold R. Booher, Ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp. 743-793. 15. SUBJECT TERMS human-centered design (HCD) Multimodal Watchstation (MMWS) project human systems integration (HSI) systems engineering 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION OF 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE ABSTRACT IPOAFG ES Glenn Osga, Code 2461 P E 19B. TELEPHONE NUMBER (Include area code) U U U UU 51 (619) 553-3644 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8/98) Prescribed by ANSI Std. Z39.18 *WIE 5 H-,.n0 b kof "v4V Human ystem In~egat*,l0 A0 OS HAROLD R. I WileSye~ie in Sytm Egne and in Maaemn AnSdaree w ~ eisEio~ ~ 4 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENTA Approved for Public Release Distribution nm ite. Best Available Copy This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright (0 2003 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222, Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 7504744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 11 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEYCOM. For ordering and customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationD ata: Booher, Harold R. Handbook of human systems integration / Harold R. Booher p. cm. -- (Wiley series in systems engineering and management) "A Wiley-Interscience publication." Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-471-02053-2 1. Human engineering. 2. Systems engineering. I. Title. I1. Series. T59.7.B66 2003 620.8'2--dc2l 2002044604 Printed in the United States of America. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 /i CONTENTS Foreword xiii Preface xv Contributors xix Technical Advisors and Reviewers xxv CHAPTER 1. Introduction: Human Systems Integration 1 HaroldR . Booher 1.1 Background 1 1.2 HSI Concept 4 1.3 Sociotechnical Systems Complexity 9 1.4 HSI Unique Aspects 11 1.5 Ten HSI Principles 12 1.6 HSI Principles Applied to Systems Acquisition 18 1.7 HSI Organizational Maturity 21 1.8 Discussion and Summary 23 1.9 Book Overview 27 PART 1 ORGANIZATION, MANAGEMENT, AND CULTURE 31 CHAPTER 2. Leadership That Achieves Human Systems Integration 33 Charles S. Harris Betty K Hart Joyce Shields 2.1 Introduction: Beyond Reductionism 33 2.2 Importance of Culture 34 2.3 Leadership Matters 37 2.4 Transformational Change Model 39 2.5 Phase 1: Decide to Change 39 2.6 Phase 2: Guide Change 45 2.7 Phase 3: Support Change 49 2.8 Phase 4: Sustain Change 54 2.9 Overcoming Challenges to Change 58 2.10 Conclusion 59 V X CONTENTS PART IV Applications 659 CHAPTER 18. Human Systems Integration in Army Systems Acquisition 663 Harold R. Booher James Minninger 18.1 Background 663 18.2 HSI System Success Factors 664 18.3 HSI Factors: Examples from Army Systems 665 18.4 Case Studies of System Benefits 677 18.5 HSI Factors and Future Weapons Systems Acquisition 690 "18.6 Summary and Conclusions 695 CHAPTER 19. Human Characteristics and Measures in Systems Design 699 Nita Lewis Miller J Jeffrey Crowson, Jr. Jennifer McGovern Narkevicius 19.1 Introduction 699 19.2 Human Traits: Characteristics of Users 702 19.3 Human States: Operational and Environmental Variations 712 19.4 Human Systems Interfaces 724 19.5 Case Study 732 19.6 Summary and Conclusions 734 CHAPTER 20. Human-Centered Shipboard Systems and Operations 743 I Baround 743 20.2 Task-Centered Approach 746 20.3 Task Coverage Requirements 750 20.4 Human Support Task Requirements 755 20.5 Dynamic Task Requirements 762 20.6 Design by Task Requirements 771 20.7 Special Design Qualities 778 20.8 Benefits of Task-Centered Design 784 20.9 Summary and Conclusions 789 CHAPTER 21. Linking Human Performance Principles to Design of Information Systems 795 Linda G. Pierce Eduardo Salas 21.1 Background 795 21.2 Human Performance Issues 799 21.3 Human Performance Concepts and Principles 805 * CHAPTER 20 Human-Centered Shipboard Systems and Operations A. OSGA QGL:ENN 20.1 BACKGROUND One of the primary principles of successful human systems integration (HSI) in systems engineering and management is utilizing a human-centered design (HCD) approach throughout the systems acquisition process (Chapters 1, 10, and 18). Several other chapters (Chapters 4, 6, 7, and 9, in particular) have pointed out the need to establish HSI requirements early in the process, if the HCD principle is to be fully effective. Unfortunately, system design requirements based upon human capabilities and limitations may not be considered early in the design process, leading to costly changes during implementation. Often, new systems simply evolve from past systems approaches using established procedural and design methods. The designer may rely on the user during the requirements stage to consider the human component, but user input must be carefully considered in that it can maintain previous designer flaws relative to human performance. User input and design qualities must be abstracted into basic task requirements. Unless the methods and procedures used in establishing requirements are specifically analyzed for impact on human performance and efficiency, neither the user or the designer is likely to fully recognize the effect the design will have on the human component when the system is fielded. A major requirement for improved user interface and decision support aboard ships has arisen from the need for crew size optimization. Optimization must be achieved without sacrifice of performance, mission risk, and without crew overload. Crew optimization in future ships has been recognized as a significant cost factor and therefore has become a performance capability objective for newer classes of ships [Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), 1996, 1997]. When the U.S. Navy required a drastic reduction of crew size from 350 to 95 personnel on DD 21 ships, it recognized the need to use HSI principles for equipment design requirements and design solutions to successfully achieve mission objectives (Bush et. al., 1999). Rlndbook of Human Systems Integration, Edited by Harold R. Booher. ISBN 0-471-02053-2 © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 743 744 HUMAN-CENTERED SHIPBOARD SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS Consequently the Multimodal Watchstation (MMWS) project was conceived as a risk-reduction research effort to create concept designs that aid in HSI with optimized crews.' The concept designs also demonstrated a task-centered approach to requirements determination during the system definition stage, without major restrictions imposed by current design practice. 20.1.1 Multimodal Watchstation Project As an example of the early stages of the design process and its products, MMWS represents the conceptual design stages of engineering, before full-scale development is attempted. The purpose of concept definition is not to create a product for final delivery or fielding but to investigate innovative features that are hypothesized to improve humann performance and training. This process further refines requirements and guidelines that are then transferred into advanced engineering model development. The reader must recog- nize, however, that the primary MMWS project focus is on software-based decision aids. and not on watchstation hardware or display technology. The hardware design is totally driven by available commercial display and control technologies, with some innovation in how the technologies are integrated and used by the software, together with ergonomic features for the physical configuration. As display technologies improved over the project life, the watchstation was also modified to take advantage of these changes. The primary focus of the MMWS design project was simulation-based design, in which a user interface simulation was constructed to test and refine requirements. The conceptual design process included the identification of critical tasks within one of the two broad mission domains and the specification of task requirements based on task characteristics and job design. This evolutionary approach allowed for technology insertion and improvements over the 4-year MMWS concept design cycle, with operator- involvement in all stages of the design process. Over the 4-years to complete the project, requirements were generated using a task-centered design approach from which alternative design concepts were developed. The design concepts were subjected to a series of usability tests and team performance evaluations to verify that both human performance and training objectives could be met. Performance and workload measures were collected with reduced crews relative to today's systems estimating the potential impact on crew size optimization. The iterative design process resulted in a mission execution and management system prototype capable of simulating work activity typical of navy command and control information centers and designed for meeting mission goals for both land attack and air defense operations. The warfighting functions supported by the MMWS are the same as current command and control centers but offer reduced workload and workload distribu- tion capabilities among team members that may enable crew size optimization. The work discussed in this chapter applies directly to the ship -command center information systems design and does not imply that crew size is reduced for other ship operational functions as a result. Decision support systems, cooperative automation, and effective displays are enablers of optimized crews but do not directly reduce crew size, unless other operational methods are changed. The path from requirements to effective display and interface design is multidimen- sional. If requirements omit major work factors that contribute workload or performance risk, the resulting design solution is at risk. There is a degree of art and innovation in (cid:127):?:20.1 BACKGROUND 745 ýJii design not easily quantified, and it is likely that multiple design solutions can work to ia chieve acceptable performance as well. Despite this first impression that one design 'example and set of requirements only serve as a loose connection with other designs, we are seeing a broader use of decision support "components" that are modified across diverse mission areas, without the need to "reinvent the wheel" for new task requirements. The specific design properties that address the task-centered requirements identified in the Mi(cid:127)viWS project also apply to other mission areas and work settings such as ship propulsion and engineering tasks (Osga, 2001). Thus, an important lesson learned to retain throughout the chapter discussion is that the type of requirements and type of tasks covered are stable within the task-centered approach across diverse systems. This stability allows for modification of various design compo- * nents to "fine-tune" results for various missions, such as defensive, strike warfare, and ship engineering control. In all cases, the human has a need to project mission events ahead in time in order to visualize the upcoming processes and anticipate potential results. It is then - ! possible to enact mission solutions based on lower stress planned responses rather than on surprised and late reactions to failures. The advantage of HSI research and development in the early conceptual process is that design ideas of varying risk can be combined and tested, with the ability to accept or reject design solutions based on iterative modeling or human performance testing. This design process will vary between every project based on the cost and expertise of the design team. "Important qualities of the MMWS decision aids were defined through years of focused research related to the air defense task domain. The project allowed the integration of various design concepts and techniques in a common design approach. Important innovations were newly derived, however, based on task support areas not previously addressed. 20.1.2 Chapter Overview This chapter presents a conceptual design process based on the experience with the MMWS project. A significant part of this process lies in the definition of tasks and establishment of key requirements. An HCD focus characterizes tasks in an information system work space according to task qualities and dynamic properties. This task-centered approach drives design thinking toward solving users' needs across a broader spectrum of task types and dynamics than is typically considered by systems designers. The chapter is divided into the following sections that describe how HSI requirements were defined and design solutions for these requirements were addressed in the MMWS project: * Task-centered approach * Task coverage requirements Human support task requirements , Dynamic task requirements Design by task requirement Other design qualities * Benefits of task-centered design 746 HUMAN-CENTERED SHIPBOARD SYSTEMS AND OPERATIONS 20.2 TASK-CENTERED APPROACH The task-centered approach fits into a conceptual design process, as shown in Figure 20.1. The process is iterative and cyclic, meaning that not all system design components and features are fully developed at the same time and fully output to another design processing stage. First, mission and task requirements are derived from design reference missions (DRMs), which capture the future use of the system into a time-based story depicting system use. The quality of the DRMs is critical for system requirements and definition of scope. Mission tasks are then derived as part of an iterative function allocation process, with levels of desired automation considered for each task. The function allocation may not be entirely fixed in a dynamic system in which the user can vary function allocation. This phase of processing produces the DRM, task definitions, task flows, and decision points to describe the task domain. The human-computer interface (HCI) design is developed and validated, as shown in the lower right circle in Figure 20.1, with input from related discovery research and other decision support tools that may be modified to fit the current mission focus. Important design requirements (beyond just the mission task requirements) that feed this part of the design process are discussed later in the chapter. The software validation process and prototyping are conducted to verify that computa. tional methods can be found that are reliable, accurate, and serve the information needs of the tasks. This prototyping process can be separate from the HCI prototyping and requirements definition thus enabling HCI designers and software engineers to coordinate work in a parallel process. The HCI prototypes, whether in paper, slide show, or simulation may be subject to repeated usability tests before they are submitted to the software prototyping process. As usability data is collected and HCI requirements mature and are better specified over time, they serve as input to the software validation process. An important facet of this approach is that in large complex systems, requirements and design are not fully described as in a hierarchical noniterative approach but that testing and refinement can occur over time for "pieces" of the system. The software architecture is also designed to accommodate successive improvements over time. The chapter content primarily covers the "task analysis" and "HCI design and validate" parts of this design process. Before proceeding further into the design process example with MMWS, several important terms used throughout the chapter should be defined. Several basic definitions related to "tasks" are needed to better understand the task-centered approach as a design process. These are task, mission task, task description,j ob design, and task definitioni A task is a goal-oriented work activity component of a job. The task may be accomplished manually, automatically, or some combination of the two. The composite of all tasks for a given job description accounts for all workload during a prescribed work period. Mission tasks are workload producing components typically addressed in military system specifications involving human control elements. A task description represents a taxonomic description of labeled work activities, This creates a written description of a definable process by which human and rmachile cooperate at achieving a work-related goal. 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