AD-A280 049 Cyprus: The Road to Partition 1950--974 by I Paul A. Skvarka I A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Accesion For NTIS CRA&I Master of Arts DTIC TAB 11 in International Studies Uinnounced 0 JB,y- Ii lii caatt,oc..- n............. .. . . By----- University of Washington Dist ib::tio((cid:127) Avcikia,',ity Ce~es 1994 Dist P Approved by m ~(C ýa~person of Supervisory Committee) Program Authorized to Offer Degree International Studie /Middle East Date ___________" __'________ IP1 94-16919<4r TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Part One: Cyprus Before Independence ................... 1 Introduction ......................................... 1 Early History ........................................ 3 Cyprus Under the British ........................... 11 Cyprus in World War I .............................. 17 Cyprus as a British Colony ......................... 22 World War II and After ............................. 27 The Plebiscite of 1950 ............................. 32 Grivas and EOKA .................................... 34 The Armed Struggle ................................ 42 Part Two: The Road to Partition ...................... 68 The Years of Adjustment ............................ 68 1965-1968 ........................................... 87 The Road to Intervention: 1969-1974 ................ 98 July 1974: Coup and Intervention .................. 104 1974-1994 .......................................... 113 Conclusion ......................................... 114 Bibliography .......................................... 119 Appendix A: Conference on Cyprus ..................... 123 Appendix B: Draft Treaty............................. 130 Appendix C: The Thirteen Points ...................... 134 Appendix D: The "Akritas Plan". ...................... 136 Appendix E: Extracts from Dr. Galo Plaza's Report ... 141 Pocket Material: Map of Cyprus Part One: Cyprus Before Independence Introduction Cyprus, until the mid-1950s, was a backwater of international politics, and remained there until a short and successful guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriots for independence from British colonial rule (1954-1958). Independence was rmnl-i'cated when Greek and Turkish Cypriots, backed by mainland benefactors, began fighting. This internecine conflict resulted in Turkish intervention and the subsequent occupation of nearly 34% of the island by Turkish forces in July 1974. This paper will outline Cyprus' history up to the mid- 1950s and concentrate on events leading to the intervention in 1974 supporting Turkey's argument that it is solely not responsible for the tragedy that befell Cyprus. Certainly, the Turks must share the responsibility for the "Cyprus Question." The current crisis of Cyprus has its roots in a shiarad Greco-Turkish memory dating back to the sixteenth century. The ancient Greeks settled Cyprus and were the main occupants until 1571 when, in conjunction with Ottoman expansion, a Turkish garrison was established. The remnants of this force were the progenitors of today's Turkish minority. As the decades passed, the Greek Cypriots increasingly identified with irredentist Greeks on the mainland. The island, under continuous Ottoman 2 rule until 1878, was relatively peaceful although the Greek Cypriots were a repressed majority. In 1878, Turkish control ended with the advent of British colonial rule. Left out of the decision-making process, the Greek CypLiot majority began agitating for union with Greece, or "Enosis," as soon as the first British Governor stepped on the island. The Turkish Cypriot minority, however, only gradually began pressuring for Cyprus' return to Turkey. Considering Cyprus a strategic asset, the British policy of divide and rule virtually guaranteed the continuance of an unresolvable situation which worsened into a guerrilla war and the beginnings of civil war. Unwilling to maintain their presence in an increasingly hostile environment, Great Britain brokered a compromise solution of questionable value. British control was turned over to an elected Cypriot government and civil war broke out soon after. The Greek Cypriot push for Enosis was fronted by Makarios, a Greek Orthodox priest, and George Grivas, a retired Greek army colonel, and had the backing of the majority of Greeks. Enosis was also openly supported by the Greek government but opposed by the Turkish government which preferred another option, partition. A military coup in Greece by ultra-conservative army officers in 1967 stepped up the pressure to unify, finally forcing Turkey's hand by overthrowing Makarios and installing a sympathetic 3 government in 1974. Although Greece and Turkey were members of NATO, now at the brink of war, the American and British governments initially refused to step in and control a volatile situation. Their inaction in the face of Greek interference in Cypriot affairs and the subsequent Turkish invasion five days later, led to the part4itioning of Cypr,:s - a partition which has so far lasted nearly twenty years. Because it is a very emotional issue for all those concerned, there are very few impartial accounts available. The historiography of modern Cyprus is rife with conflicting versions of history as each party seeks to sway world opinion and justify its stance by apportioning blame to the other actors and loudly proclaim its innocence. The long standing ethnic tensions between Greeks and Turks colors their depictions of events into a black and white world where innocence and guilt are delineated solely by nationality. In writing this paper, primary sources from Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Great Britain and the United States or their perspectives were utilized. Early History Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with a size of 3,572 square miles (about half the size of New Jersey). It is 140 miles long from east to west, 60 miles wide at its greatest width and 4 lies 40 miles south of Turkey and 500 miles southeast of 1 Greece. mainland In order to comprehend the "Cyprus Question," one must realize today's political crisis is deeply rooted in the distant past. The cultural development of Cyprus is an important factor, greatly contributing to the island's current status as a problem area. The earliest signs of civilization in Cyprus can be traced to 6,000 B.C., the Neolithic Age. Mycenean traders from mainland Greece began making an appearance around 1,400 B.C. They were followed by the Achaeans who colonized the island introducing Greek culture and language. Although archaeologists have found evidence of a mixture of other cultures mainly from Syria and Anatolia dating to the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., the Hellenistic culture of the Achaeans prevailed. According to Dr. P.N. Vanezis, "in Cyprus, from the end of the fifth century B.C. there has been a continuation of Greek culture in the ethnic sense." 2 It was during this period that the definite Hellenic character of the island began to emerge. Hellenic Cyprus was not Periclean Greece, but neither were other Greek territories such as Syracuse in Sicily. The overwhelming weight of archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates the predominance of Hellenic Intarnational Affairs Agency, Unknown Aspects of the Cyprus Reality, p. 7. 2 Dr. P.N. Vanezis, Makarios: Pragmatism v. Idealism, p. 9. 5 culture in Cyprus. It is disingenuous to claim that Cyprus was and is Turkish because the island was once attached to southern Turkey while the planet's land masses were still forming.3 Turkish sources are also quick to point out that the archaeological evidence of Anatolian culture discovered on Cyprus clearly establishes the Turkishness of Cyprus. The discovery of artifacts from Anatolia should not be surprising, especially in the Mediterranean where trade among the different cities occurred on a daily basis. The Achaeans were followed by the Phoenicians, Assyrians, Egyptians and the Persians. Cyprus was eventually annexed by the Romans in 58 B.C. where they simply confirmed the Hellenic character of the island. For the population of Cyprus, the years of Pax Romana were contented and uneventful years. Cyprus became a province of the Eastern Roman Empire which, as Byzantium, became an essentially Greek state based on the Greek Orthodox Church and Greek language. Living in relative peace and autonomy, Cyprus prospered. The importance and influence of Byzantine rule to the development of a Greek identity in the majority of Cyprus' inhabitants should not be overlooked. The harsh treatment which the Cypriots endured at the hands of their subsequent conquerors intensified their sense of collective identity International Affairs Agency, op. cit., pp. 7-10. 6 as Greeks. The era of relative peace and prosperity ended around the seventh century A.D. when a series of Muslim raids over the course of the years left Cyprus exhausted and impoverished. Cyprus, the first part of the Byzantine Empire to be conquered by the Crusaders, was taken by Richard I (the Lionhearted) of England in 1191 while leading the Third Crusade. Finding little use for Cyprus, he sold the island to the Knights Templars, who in turn sold it to the King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan. The "Latin" rule of the de Lusignans continued the foreign rule which was to last until 1959. The feudal monarchy founded by the House of de Lusignan ruled Cyprus until the end of the fifteenth tx During tnis period, all privileges belonged to the nobles, with the masses reduced to serfdom. Cypriot land was taken and distributed among the barons and knijhts and the Greek Orthodox Church was persecuted by the Latins. The inhabitants of Cyprus had to contend with several more years of intolerable misrule when their island was acquired by the Venetians in 1489 prompting one Cypriot to write "we have escaped from the grasp of a dog to fall into that of the lion." 4 It was inevitable that Venice would soon clash with the ever expanding Ottoman Empire. After Stavros Panteli, A New History of Cyprus, p. 21. 7 a long siege, Cyprus fell to the Ottomans in 1570-1571, beginning a 300 year period of Turkish administration. Ottoman rule was at first relatively enlightened compared to the Venetian's "Latin" rule. The island was freed from the Catholic ruling class and their political system. The Turks formally abolished serfdom, the Greek Orthodox Archbishopric was restored, and the Greek population was granted limited autonomy.5 A policy of leniency or "istimalet" was carried out and the Cypriots were incorporated into the "millet" system. Over the years, Turkish rule in cyprus das similar to that in other occupied territories. It was characterized by inefficiency, corruption and oppression. In spite of this, the ptivileged position of the Greek Orthodox Church of cours(cid:127) grew. The Ottomans used the clergy as administrators and treated the Archbishops as "Ethnarchs," political as well as -piritu.l leaders of their pronle. 6 There were several uprisings: in 1764, 1804, and in 1821, the latter inspired by the Greek Revolution on the mainland. This last revolt, a product of the outpouring of Greek nationalism, led to much bloodshed in reprisal on Cyprus. Among those executed were Archbishop Kyprianos (thus becoming a martyred Ethnarch) and other Greek Costas K. Kyrris, History of Cyprus, p. 250-260. 6 Vanezis, op. cit., p. 16. 8 officials.7 These executions and other reprisals on the mainland propagated the idea of Turkish barbarity in the minds of Greeks everywhere, shaping attitudes which have clouded judgement till this day. Although Cyprus was a province of the Ottoman Empire, its conquest and administration in many ways differed from those of other parts of the empire. The stationing of a large military force due to Cyprus' strategic importance in the eastern Mediterranean was significant. Cyprus had to be guarded and garrisoned, and this garrison, more than anything else, was the origin of the Turkish population of Cyprus.8 The numbers of Turks versus Greeks vary depending on the source utilized. Some Greek sources, by ignoring historical fact, impugn the Turkishness of Turkish Cypriots by calling them Islamicized Greeks. 9 On the other hand, some Turkish sources use the lowest figures given for Greeks on the island arguing against the Greek character of Cyprus and not taking into consideration that the figures given may have been intentionally kept low in order to reduce taxes. 10 While the Turkish population grew steadily from the original 20,000 man garrison of 1571 with the John Koumoulides, Cyprus and the Greek War of Independence. 1821-1829, pp. 56-62. Vanezis, op. cit., p. 49. Ibid., p. 50. 10 International Affairs Agency, op. cit., p. 25.