Manufacturing and Industrial Engineering A S TA K H O V Manufacturing Design and Technology Science and Technology of Advanced Operations “… very valuable knowledge … new procedures to find the root causes of tool failure with accuracy … based on the innovative concepts … the right methodologies and practices to help … selection of the drilling system components to manufacture high-quality products, improve the efficiency S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y o f of the drilling process and development of the next generation of high- performance (HP) drills.” A d v a n c e d O p e r a t i o n s —J. C. Outeiro, Arts et Metiers ParisTech “… explains drilling (science and technology of advanced operations) with high quality and innovation. … a useful reference for academics, researchers, mechanical, manufacturing, industrial engineers, and professionals familiar with machining technology.” —J. Paulo Davim, University of Aveiro Features • Defines basic concepts, terminology, and essentials of drilling • Introduces the concept of the drilling system, formulating the systems rules (laws) and showing the impact of the first-level system components oS fc • Provides multiple methodologies and practical examples for the i Ae design, manufacture, and inspection of high-productivity drills dn • Covers the subject from a very basic level to the high level of scientific vc ae results achieved to date n • Discusses common materials for making drilling tools with ca en exceptional depth of scientific and technical detail dd OT In a presentation that balances theory and practice, Drills: Science and pe ec Technology of Advanced Operations details the basic concepts, terminol- rh ogy, and essentials of drilling. The book addresses important issues in an to drilling operations, and provides help with the design of such operations. It il oo debunks many old notions and beliefs while introducing scientifically and ng technically sound concepts with detailed explanations. sy V I K T O R P . A S T A K H O V K19033 S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y o f A d v a n c e d O p e r a t i o n s Manufacturing Design and Technology Series Series Editor J. Paulo Davim   Drills: Science and Technology of Advanced Operations (2014) Viktor P. Astakhov Diamond Tools in Abrasive Machining (2014) Mark Jackson Manufacturing Design and Technology S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y o f A d v a n c e d O p e r a t i o n s V I K T O R P. A S T A K H O V Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20130923 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-8435-8 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid- ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv Acknowledgments ..........................................................................................................................xxv Author ..........................................................................................................................................xxvii Chapter 1 Drilling System ............................................................................................................1 1.1 Fundamentals ....................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Basic Drilling Operations ....................................................................1 1.1.2 Machining Regime in Drilling Operations ..........................................4 1.1.2.1 Cutting Speed .......................................................................5 1.1.2.2 Feed, Feed per Tooth, and Feed Rate ...................................5 1.1.3 Depth of Cut and Material Removal Rate ............................................7 1.1.4 Cut and Its Dimensions ........................................................................8 1.1.5 Selecting Machining Regime: General Idea ......................................10 1.1.6 Cutting Force and Power ....................................................................13 1.1.6.1 Definition of Terms According to ISO Standard ................13 1.1.6.2 Basis of the Cutting Force and Power Calculations ...........13 1.2 Drilling System for HP Drills: Structure, Properties, Components, and Failure Analysis ........................................................................................15 1.2.1 System Concept ..................................................................................15 1.2.2 Drilling System ..................................................................................20 1.2.2.1 Structure of the Drilling System ........................................20 1.2.2.2 Coherency Law ...................................................................21 1.2.2.3 System Objective ................................................................22 1.2.3 Case for HP Drills ..............................................................................22 1.2.4 Design of Drilling Systems ................................................................25 1.2.4.1 Part Drawing Analysis and Design of the Tool Layout ......27 1.2.4.2 Drill Selection/Design ........................................................28 1.2.4.3 Drill Material Selection ......................................................32 1.2.4.4 HP Drill Design/Geometry Selection .................................33 1.2.4.5 Part-Holding Fixture Design/Selection ..............................34 1.2.4.6 Metal Working Fluid ..........................................................35 1.2.4.7 Controller ............................................................................35 1.2.4.8 Machine Tools ....................................................................37 1.2.4.9 Tool Holders ........................................................................40 1.2.5 Summary: Checklist of Requirements for the Drilling System for HP Drilling ...................................................................................49 References ..................................................................................................................52 Chapter 2 Tool Failure as a System Problem: Investigation, Assessment, and Recommendations ...............................................................................................55 2.1 Traditional Notions and Approaches ...............................................................57 2.2 Failure: A System-Related Definition .............................................................58 2.3 Tool Failure Prime Sources .............................................................................58 v vi Contents 2.4 Preparation Stage: Collecting Information ......................................................59 2.4.1 Knowing That a Failure Occurs .........................................................59 2.4.2 Tool Tracking: The Tag System .........................................................59 2.4.3 Automated Tool Tracking with RFID ................................................60 2.4.4 Collecting Other Supporting Information and Evidences ..................63 2.4.5 Assessment of the Collected Evidences: Obvious Root Causes .........64 2.4.6 Additional Information Needed for Normal Tool Failure Analysis ........................................................................................68 2.4.6.1 Tool Drawing ......................................................................69 2.4.6.2 Tool Layout .........................................................................69 2.4.6.3 Tool Inspection Report .......................................................70 2.4.6.4 Part Inspection Report ........................................................70 2.4.6.5 Drilling System Background Information ..........................70 2.4.6.6 Additional Information if the Problem Was Solved ...........73 2.4.6.7 Tool History ........................................................................73 2.4.6.8 Inventory Count and Delivery Schedule for the Next Supply .............................................................73 2.5 Part Autopsy and Tool Reconstruction Surgery ..............................................73 2.5.1 Example: Step 1—Failure Information ..............................................74 2.5.2 Example: Step 2—Analysis of the Collected Failure Information ........75 2.5.3 Example: Step 3—Sectioning the Autopsy Specimen .......................75 2.5.4 Example: Step 4—First Microscopic Examination of the Sectioned Part ..........................................................................78 2.5.5 Example: Step 5—Breaking the Precut Section and Separating Debris/Tool Fragments .......................................................................78 2.5.6 Example: Step 6—Examining the Surface of the Machined Hole ................................................................80 2.5.7 Example: Step 7—Reconstruction of the Bottom of the Hole Being Drilled ......................................................................................81 2.5.8 Example: Step 8—Reconstruction of the Drill and Root Cause Determination.....................................................................................82 2.5.9 Example: Step 9—Archiving the Evidence and Writing a Report ...................................................................................84 2.6 Tool Wear ........................................................................................................85 2.6.1 Background Information ....................................................................85 2.6.2 Standard Wear Assessment ................................................................88 2.6.3 Statistical Analysis of Tool Wear Curves ...........................................91 2.6.4 Common Wear Regions of Drills .......................................................99 2.6.5 Assessment of Tool Wear of HP Drills ............................................103 2.6.6 Correlations of Drill Wear with Force Factors.................................104 2.6.7 Assessment of Wear Resistance of Tool Materials ..........................105 2.6.8 Real Mechanisms of Tool Wear: Pure Abrasion, Adhesion, and Abrasion–Adhesive Wear ..........................................................107 2.6.9 Special Wear Mechanisms: Reaction of the Cutting Tool on Increased Cutting Speed and the Optimal Cutting Temperature .....111 2.6.9.1 Prevailing Concept ...........................................................111 2.6.9.2 Optimal Cutting Temperature: Makarow’s Law...............115 2.6.10 Special Wear Mechanisms: PCD .....................................................116 2.6.11 Casting Defects and Tool Wear/Failure ...........................................126 2.6.12 Special Wear Mechanisms: Cobalt Leaching ..................................130 Contents vii 2.6.13 Facts and Physics of the Wear of Tool Materials .............................133 2.6.13.1 Need for a New Theory of Tool Wear ..............................133 2.6.13.2 Diffusion Self-Healing of Microcracks ............................137 References ................................................................................................................139 Chapter 3 Tool Materials ..........................................................................................................143 3.1 Words of Wisdom ..........................................................................................143 3.2 Basic Properties .............................................................................................144 3.2.1 Wear Resistance ...............................................................................145 3.2.2 Toughness .........................................................................................145 3.3 High Speed Steels ..........................................................................................147 3.3.1 Why HSSs? .......................................................................................147 3.3.2 Brief History .....................................................................................148 3.3.3 Common Grades of HSS ..................................................................149 3.3.3.1 Group I: General-Purpose HSSs .......................................150 3.3.3.2 Group II: Abrasion-Resistant HSSs ..................................150 3.3.3.3 Group III: High Red Hardness HSSs ...............................150 3.3.3.4 Group IV: Super HSSs ......................................................151 3.3.4 Factors Affecting Intelligent Grade Selection of HSS .....................151 3.3.5 Formation of Properties ...................................................................154 3.3.5.1 Casting of HSS .................................................................156 3.3.5.2 Dealing with Cast Structure .............................................158 3.3.6 Components in HSS .........................................................................167 3.3.6.1 Tungsten and Molybdenum ...............................................167 3.3.6.2 Chromium .........................................................................167 3.3.6.3 Vanadium ..........................................................................168 3.3.6.4 Cobalt ................................................................................168 3.3.6.5 Carbon ..............................................................................168 3.3.6.6 Sulfur ................................................................................168 3.3.7 Heat Treatment of HSS.....................................................................170 3.3.7.1 Soft Annealing and Stress Relieving ................................170 3.3.7.2 Hardening and Tempering ................................................171 3.3.7.3 Cryogenic Treatment of HSSs ..........................................173 3.3.8 Coating of HSS .................................................................................175 3.4 Cemented Carbides ........................................................................................179 3.4.1 What Is Cemented Carbide? .............................................................180 3.4.2 Brief History .....................................................................................180 3.4.3 Grade Classification .........................................................................182 3.4.3.1 Earlier Standards ..............................................................182 3.4.3.2 Current Standard ..............................................................183 3.4.4 Problem ............................................................................................186 3.4.5 Properties of Cemented Carbides .....................................................187 3.4.5.1 Introduction Notes ............................................................187 3.4.5.2 Groups of Properties .........................................................188 3.4.5.3 Formation of Properties: Basics ........................................189 3.4.5.4 Some Important Properties ...............................................190 3.4.5.5 Nondestructive Testing of Carbide Properties Using Magnetic Measurements ...................................................197 3.4.5.6 Nanoparticle Carbides: Research and Expectations .........206 viii Contents 3.4.6 Carbide Blanks .................................................................................207 3.4.6.1 Blanks for Carbide-Tipped Drilling Tools ........................208 3.4.6.2 Round Carbide Blanks ......................................................210 3.4.6.3 Round Carbide Blanks Made of Advanced Carbides ..........214 3.4.7 Coating .............................................................................................216 3.4.7.1 Methods of Application ....................................................216 3.4.7.2 Coating Strategies .............................................................220 3.4.7.3 Quality Control .................................................................222 3.4.8 Cryogenic Treatment of Cemented Carbides ...................................226 3.4.9 Considerations in Proper Grade Selection .......................................228 3.5 Diamond ........................................................................................................230 3.5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................230 3.5.2 Blanks for Drilling Tools: PDC and PCD Disks ..............................231 3.5.3 Manufacturing of PCD Disks ...........................................................234 3.5.3.1 Process ..............................................................................234 3.5.3.2 Powder Mix .......................................................................238 3.5.4 Grain Size .........................................................................................241 3.5.5 Interfaces ..........................................................................................244 3.5.6 Thermal Stability .............................................................................245 3.5.7 PCD Grade Selection and Quality Inspection ..................................250 3.5.7.1 Grade Selection Considerations ........................................250 3.5.7.2 Quality Assessment of PCD Products ..............................253 References ................................................................................................................255 Chapter 4 Twist and Straight-Flute Drills: Geometry and Design Components ......................259 4.1 Classification .................................................................................................260 4.2 Basic Terms ...................................................................................................265 4.3 Constraints on the Drill Penetration Rate: Drill ...........................................268 4.4 Force Balance as the Major Prerequisite Feature in HP Drill Design/Manufacturing ..................................................................................269 4.4.1 Theoretical (Intended) Force Balance ..............................................269 4.4.2 Additional Force Factors in Real Tools ............................................271 4.4.3 Resistance of a Drill to the Force Factors ........................................272 4.4.3.1 Resistance to the Drilling Torque .....................................273 4.4.3.2 Resistance to the Axial Force ...........................................276 4.4.3.3 Drill-Design/Process-Related Generalizations/ Considerations Related to Resistance to the Force Factors ......284 4.4.3.4 Improving Drill Rigidity ..................................................287 4.4.3.5 Axial Force (Thrust)–Torque Coupling ............................290 4.5 Drill Geometry ..............................................................................................291 4.5.1 Importance of the Drill Geometry ...................................................291 4.5.2 Tool Geometry Measures to Increase the Allowable Penetration Rate ...............................................................................292 4.5.3 Straight-Flute and Twist Drills Particularities .................................292 4.5.4 Systems of Consideration .................................................................295 4.5.5 Drilling Tool Geometry in T-hand-S: Rake and Clearance Angles ......296 4.5.6 Drilling Tool Geometry in T-mach-S and T-use-S: Clearance Angles .......307 4.5.7 Drilling Tool Geometry in T-mach-S and T-use-S: Rake Angles ....314 4.5.7.1 Rake Angle in T-mach-S/T-use-S γcf Determination According to the First Approach ......................................315 Contents ix 4.5.7.2 Rake Angle in T-mach-S/T-use-S γne Determination According to the Second Approach ..................................318 4.5.7.3 Comparison of the First and Second Approaches ............323 4.5.7.4 Chip Breakage ..................................................................328 4.5.8 Chisel Edge ......................................................................................336 4.5.8.1 General..............................................................................336 4.5.8.2 Case 1: The Primary Flank Is Planar and Its Width Is Equal to or Greater than 2a .........................................337 o 4.5.8.3 Case 2: The Primary Flank Is Planar and the Width of the Primary Flank Is Equal to a ..................................346 o 4.5.8.4 Drill Flank Is Formed by Two Surfaces (Generalization: Tertiary Flank Plane and Split Point) ....350 4.5.8.5 Modifications of the Chisel Edge .....................................359 4.5.9 Point Angle and Margin ...................................................................366 4.5.9.1 Axial/Radial Force Ratio .................................................368 4.5.9.2 Uncut Chip Thickness (Chip Load) and Chip Flow .........368 4.5.9.3 Exit Burr and Delamination .............................................369 4.5.9.4 Cycle Time ........................................................................372 4.5.9.5 Back Taper ........................................................................372 4.5.9.6 Margin and Minor Cutting Edge ......................................377 4.6 Drill Design Optimization Based on the Load over the Drill Cutting Edge .............................................................................................384 4.6.1 Uncut Chip Thickness in Drilling ....................................................385 4.6.2 Load Distribution over the Cutting Edge .........................................386 4.6.3 Drills with Curved Cutting Edges....................................................387 4.6.4 Generalization ..................................................................................393 References ................................................................................................................394 Chapter 5 PCD and Deep-Hole Drills ......................................................................................397 5.1 PCD Drilling Tools........................................................................................397 5.1.1 Challenges of Work Materials ..........................................................397 5.1.1.1 Metal-Matrix Composites .................................................397 5.1.1.2 Polymer-Based Composite Materials ...............................399 5.1.1.3 Similarity and Differences ...............................................401 5.1.2 PCD-Tipped Drilling Tools ..............................................................401 5.1.3 Full-Face (Cross) PCD Drills ...........................................................407 5.1.3.1 First Approach: PCD Is Sintered in a Part of the Drill Body ...............................................................407 5.1.3.2 Second Approach: PCD Segment(s) Is Brazed into the Drill Body ............................................................416 5.2 Deep-Hole Drills ...........................................................................................427 5.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................427 5.2.2 Common Classification of Deep-Hole Machining Operations ........428 5.2.2.1 Force Balance and the Meaning of the Term Self-Piloting Tool ..............................................................430 5.2.3 Additional Force Factors in Real Tools ............................................432 5.2.4 Common Feature of SPTs: Supporting Pads ....................................434 5.2.4.1 Locating Principle of SPTs ...............................................434 5.2.4.2 Optimal Location of the Supporting Pads ........................440 5.2.4.3 Location Accuracy of the Supporting Pads ......................444