Dr. Cahit Karakuş 2013 1 “ Read, Memorize and Remember ” Balbiti 2 CONTENTS 1. Sentence ......................................................................................................... 11 1.1. Noun ................................................................................................................... 11 1.1.1. Plural noun ........................................................................................................................ 16 1.1.2. Noun phrase ..................................................................................................................... 18 1.1.3. Determiners: a, an, the ................................................................................................... 19 1.1.4. Numbers and Numerals .................................................................................................. 22 1.1.5. Suffix and Prefix ............................................................................................................... 35 1.1.6. Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... 52 1.2. Structure............................................................................................................. 55 1.2.1. Subject - Özne.................................................................................................................. 57 1.2.2. Agrement between subject and verb ............................................................................ 61 1.2.3. Object - Nesne ................................................................................................................. 67 1.2.4. Complement ..................................................................................................................... 70 1.2.5. Adjective ............................................................................................................................ 71 1.2.6. Adverb ............................................................................................................................... 72 1.2.7. Preposition ........................................................................................................................ 73 1.2.8. Conjunction ....................................................................................................................... 74 1.3. Verb ..................................................................................................................... 75 1.3.1. Predicate and verb .......................................................................................................... 76 1.3.2. Verb patterns .................................................................................................................... 78 1.3.3. Verb types ......................................................................................................................... 83 Linking verbs ................................................................................................................................. 87 Phrasel verbs ................................................................................................................................. 88 1.3.4. Verb forms ........................................................................................................................ 94 To be – durum ............................................................................................................................... 98 Have - aitlik .................................................................................................................................. 104 Modals .......................................................................................................................................... 110 There ............................................................................................................................................ 111 1.4. Sentence forms .............................................................................................. 114 1.4.1. Tense ............................................................................................................................... 117 1.4.2. Clause ............................................................................................................................. 119 1.4.3. Question .......................................................................................................................... 123 1.4.4. Negative construction .................................................................................................... 136 1.4.5. Mood and Voice ............................................................................................................. 142 1.4.6. Agreement and Disagreement ..................................................................................... 146 1.4.7. Inversion structure ......................................................................................................... 149 1.4.8. Interjection ...................................................................................................................... 155 1.5. Punctuation ...................................................................................................... 156 1.5.1. Capitalization .................................................................................................................. 156 1.5.2. Period (.) ......................................................................................................................... 160 1.5.3. Comma (,) ....................................................................................................................... 161 3 1.5.4. Question (?) .................................................................................................................... 165 1.5.5. Semicolon (;) .................................................................................................................. 165 1.5.6. Exclamation point (!) .................................................................................................... 165 1.5.7. Colons (:) ......................................................................................................................... 166 1.5.8. Quotation (“ ”) ................................................................................................................ 167 1.5.9. Parenthesis ..................................................................................................................... 168 1.5.10. Apostrophe (’) ................................................................................................................. 168 1.5.11. Dash (-) ........................................................................................................................... 169 1.5.12. Italic .................................................................................................................................. 169 2. Pronoun ........................................................................................................ 171 2.1. Personal pronouns ......................................................................................... 171 2.1.1. Subject pronouns ........................................................................................................... 172 2.1.2. Object pronouns ............................................................................................................. 176 2.1.3. Possessive adjectives ................................................................................................... 177 2.1.4. Possessive pronouns .................................................................................................... 178 2.2. Demonstrative pronouns ............................................................................... 179 2.3. Relative pronouns ........................................................................................... 180 2.4. Reflexive pronouns ......................................................................................... 182 2.5. Interrogative pronouns ................................................................................... 184 2.6. Indefinite pronouns ......................................................................................... 190 2.6.1. Indefinite pronouns as the subject .............................................................................. 190 2.6.2. Every, Some, Any, No ................................................................................................... 194 2.6.3. Each, Else, One, All, Other .......................................................................................... 197 2.6.4. Both, Either, Neither ...................................................................................................... 200 2.6.5. But .................................................................................................................................... 202 2.7. Referral: Preventing to repeats ..................................................................... 203 3. Preposition ................................................................................................... 207 3.1. Time prepositions ........................................................................................... 208 3.2. Place prepositions .......................................................................................... 215 3.3. Common prepositions .................................................................................... 222 By .................................................................................................................................................. 222 Between: (involves just two) ...................................................................................................... 224 Beyond (Ötesinde, dışında)....................................................................................................... 225 But ................................................................................................................................................. 225 For ................................................................................................................................................. 226 From .............................................................................................................................................. 227 Like ................................................................................................................................................ 228 Of ................................................................................................................................................... 228 Off .................................................................................................................................................. 229 4 Over .............................................................................................................................................. 230 Past ............................................................................................................................................... 231 Througy /Throughout: çapında, boyunca, yardımıyla ............................................................ 231 To .................................................................................................................................................. 232 Under ............................................................................................................................................ 232 With ............................................................................................................................................... 233 Others ........................................................................................................................................... 234 3.4. Adjective Preposition ..................................................................................... 238 3.5. Preposition and Verbs .................................................................................... 243 4. Verbals .......................................................................................................... 245 4.1. Gerund .............................................................................................................. 246 4.2. Infinitive ............................................................................................................ 253 4.3. Participle .......................................................................................................... 278 5. Tenses ........................................................................................................... 287 5.1. Simple Tenses ................................................................................................. 290 5.1.1. Present Simple Tense ................................................................................................... 290 5.1.2. Past Simple Tense ........................................................................................................ 292 5.1.3. Future Simple Tense ..................................................................................................... 295 5.2. Continuous Tenses ......................................................................................... 299 5.2.1. Present continuous tense ............................................................................................. 299 5.2.2. Past Continuous Tense................................................................................................. 301 5.2.3. Future Continuous Tense ............................................................................................. 302 5.3. Perfect Tenses ................................................................................................. 303 5.3.1. Present Perfect Tense .................................................................................................. 303 “Gone” yerine “been” kullanımı ................................................................................................. 304 Since, For ..................................................................................................................................... 305 Just, Yet ....................................................................................................................................... 306 Ever, Never .................................................................................................................................. 307 Already ......................................................................................................................................... 307 Recentley, Lately, Before........................................................................................................... 308 Up to now, Till now, So far, Untilnow ....................................................................................... 308 5.3.2. Past Perfect Tense ........................................................................................................ 309 5.3.3. Future Perfect Tense .................................................................................................... 310 5.4. Perfect Continuous Tenses ........................................................................... 312 5.4.1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense ............................................................................. 312 5.4.2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense ................................................................................... 313 5.4.3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense ............................................................................... 314 5.5. Passive voice ................................................................................................... 316 5.6. Causative form ................................................................................................ 328 5 6. Modals ........................................................................................................... 331 6.1. Formation of modals ....................................................................................... 332 Modal adverbs and adjectives ...................................................................................................... 334 Modal perfect ................................................................................................................................... 335 Modality progressive ....................................................................................................................... 337 6.2. Auxiliary verbs ................................................................................................. 338 Advice ............................................................................................................................................... 349 Possibility .......................................................................................................................................... 352 Strong probability ............................................................................................................................ 357 Obligation and Necessity ............................................................................................................... 362 Ability ................................................................................................................................................. 368 Request and Permission ................................................................................................................ 372 6.3. Prohibition: Must not ...................................................................................... 377 6.4. Suggestion, Deduction, Expectation ............................................................ 380 6.5. Habitual Activities: Used to ........................................................................... 381 7. Modifiers ....................................................................................................... 383 7.1. Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 384 7.1.1. Place of the adjectives .................................................................................................. 388 To be + adj + to + V: express feelings and react ................................................................... 389 7.1.2. Adjectives and Linking verbs ....................................................................................... 391 7.1.3. Adjective phrase ............................................................................................................ 392 7.1.4. Ving or V3 as adjective ................................................................................................. 393 7.1.5. Nouns as adjectives ...................................................................................................... 394 7.1.6. Adjectives as nouns ...................................................................................................... 395 7.2. Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 396 7.2.1. Adverbs forms ................................................................................................................ 399 7.2.2. The place of the adverbial modifiers ........................................................................... 401 7.2.3. Types of adverbs ........................................................................................................... 403 7.2.4. Peculiarities in the use of adverbs .............................................................................. 408 7.3. Qualification ..................................................................................................... 411 7.4. Quantifiers ....................................................................................................... 412 7.5. Comparative ..................................................................................................... 416 7.5.1. “than” are used as comparison .................................................................................... 416 7.5.2. Comparison of Equality “as” ......................................................................................... 418 7.5.3. Comparison “Like” ......................................................................................................... 421 7.5.4. Parallel constructions .................................................................................................... 424 7.5.5. Numerals in comparisons ............................................................................................. 425 7.5.6. Intensifiers and modifiers .............................................................................................. 426 7.5.7. Comparison of adverbs ................................................................................................. 427 6 7.6. Superlative ....................................................................................................... 429 7.6.1. Most ................................................................................................................................. 433 7.6.2. Of all ................................................................................................................................ 435 7.6.3. Lower degree: Less and Least ................................................................................... 436 7.7. Emphasis.......................................................................................................... 438 7.7.1. So ..................................................................................................................................... 439 7.7.2. Such ................................................................................................................................. 443 7.7.3. Quite, Too, Enough, Well ............................................................................................. 446 7.7.4. Introductory phrases that add emphasis .................................................................... 449 7.7.5. Rather .............................................................................................................................. 450 8. Conditional Sentences ................................................................................ 451 8.1. If clauses .......................................................................................................... 451 Type-0: General or scientific conditions ....................................................................................... 451 Type-1: Real condition.................................................................................................................... 452 Type-2: Unreal condition in the present or future ....................................................................... 454 Type-3: Unreal condition in the past ............................................................................................. 456 Open conditional ............................................................................................................................. 457 “Could” and “Might” in conditional sentences .............................................................................. 458 “Should” after “if” ............................................................................................................................. 458 Absence of “if” .................................................................................................................................. 459 8.2. Mixed forms ..................................................................................................... 460 8.3. Inversion of If Clauses (Omitting If) .............................................................. 463 9. Noun Clauses ............................................................................................... 465 9.1. Noun clause as subject of a sentence .......................................................... 466 9.2. Noun clause as object of a sentence ............................................................ 467 9.3. Noun clause as complement ......................................................................... 469 9.4. Whether /if ........................................................................................................ 470 9.5. Questions in noun clauses ............................................................................ 473 9.6. The subjunctive form in noun clauses ......................................................... 476 9.7. Preferences ...................................................................................................... 484 9.7.1. Wish ................................................................................................................................. 484 9.7.2. Hope ................................................................................................................................ 489 9.7.3. Would rather ................................................................................................................... 490 9.7.4. Rather than ..................................................................................................................... 492 10. Reported Speech (Direct - Indirect) .......................................... 495 10.1. Reported question ....................................................................................... 504 10.2. Requests, Advice, Promises or Instructions ........................................... 506 7 10.3. Special forms (parahrave) in reported speech ........................................ 507 11. Relative Clauses ....................................................................................... 511 11.1. Defining relative clauses ............................................................................ 512 11.2. Coordinators ................................................................................................ 517 11.3. Prepositions in the adjective clauses ....................................................... 519 12. Conjunctions ............................................................................................ 523 12.1. Bağlaçlarda noktalama ............................................................................... 525 12.2. Coordinating conjunctions ......................................................................... 526 12.3. Correlative conjunctions ............................................................................ 530 12.4. Adverb Clauses ........................................................................................... 535 12.4.1. The adverbial clause of comparison ........................................................................... 537 12.4.2. The adverbial clause of condition and possibility ...................................................... 538 12.4.3. The adverbial clause of time ........................................................................................ 547 As .................................................................................................................................................. 548 When ............................................................................................................................................ 549 Since ............................................................................................................................................. 550 While ............................................................................................................................................. 552 As soon as (When, After): Hemen, olur olmaz ....................................................................... 553 On: Hemen, olur olmaz .............................................................................................................. 553 Once: Hemen, olur olmaz .......................................................................................................... 553 Upon: ............................................................................................................................................ 554 Other time conjunctions ............................................................................................................. 556 12.4.4. The adverbial clause of place ...................................................................................... 560 12.4.5. The adverbial clause of purpose ................................................................................. 561 12.4.6. Reason ............................................................................................................................ 566 12.4.7. Result, Summation, Conclusion .................................................................................. 570 12.4.8. Contrast – Zıtlık .............................................................................................................. 571 12.4.9. Exception ........................................................................................................................ 580 12.4.10. Manner ........................................................................................................................ 581 12.4.11. The adverbial clause of concession ....................................................................... 581 12.5. Sentence connectors .................................................................................. 582 12.5.1. Reason ............................................................................................................................ 583 12.5.2. Concessive Contrast ..................................................................................................... 584 12.5.3. Emphasis ........................................................................................................................ 590 12.5.4. Addition ........................................................................................................................... 591 12.5.5. Alternatives ..................................................................................................................... 593 12.5.6. Reformulation ................................................................................................................. 593 12.5.7. Logical / sequential order ............................................................................................. 594 12.5.8. Correction ....................................................................................................................... 594 12.5.9. Exemplification ............................................................................................................... 595 8 12.5.10. Explanation ................................................................................................................. 596 12.5.11. Particularization ......................................................................................................... 596 12.5.12. Similary ....................................................................................................................... 597 12.5.13. Result, Summation, Conclusion .............................................................................. 598 12.6. Linking words and Preposition phrases................................................... 599 12.6.1. Transition + N /NP ......................................................................................................... 600 12.6.2. Prepositional phrase + Noun /NP ................................................................................ 601 12.6.3. Preposition + V ........................................................................................................... 604 ing 12.6.4. Preposition Phrase List ................................................................................................. 607 12.7. Explanatory examples ................................................................................ 611 13. Agreement in the clauses ....................................................................... 615 13.1. Time agreement in the clauses .................................................................. 615 13.1.1. Time adverbials – Zaman zarfları ................................................................................ 615 13.1.2. Zaman uyumu ................................................................................................................ 618 13.2. Tense agreement in the clauses ................................................................ 620 13.2.1. If the main clause is present ........................................................................................ 623 13.2.2. If the main clause is future ........................................................................................... 624 13.2.3. If the main clause is past .............................................................................................. 625 13.2.4. Perfect tenses in the clauses ....................................................................................... 628 13.2.5. Perfect continuous tenses in the clauses ................................................................... 631 13.2.6. Main clause has the modals ......................................................................................... 632 13.2.7. Main clause has conditional sentences ...................................................................... 633 13.3. Reduced sentences ..................................................................................... 636 13.3.1. Reduction in the noun clauses ..................................................................................... 636 13.3.2. Reduction in the relative clauses ................................................................................. 643 13.3.3. Reduction in the adverbial clauses ............................................................................. 652 13.4. Ving, V3, Been, Being.................................................................................. 662 13.4.1. Ving .................................................................................................................................. 674 13.4.2. Have been, has been .................................................................................................... 678 13.4.3. Being ................................................................................................................................ 679 13.4.4. Having ............................................................................................................................. 681 13.4.5. To be + V , to be + V ..................................................................................................... 682 3 14. Exam Tips .................................................................................................. 684 14.1. Dictionary ..................................................................................................... 684 14.2. Sentence analysis ....................................................................................... 690 14.2.1. Memorable phrases ....................................................................................................... 690 14.2.2. Sentences ....................................................................................................................... 690 14.2.3. Tender offers .................................................................................................................. 694 14.3. Translation ................................................................................................... 696 9 14.4. Completion ................................................................................................... 700 14.5. Irrelevant sentences .................................................................................... 701 14.6. Restatement ................................................................................................. 703 14.7. Diyalogues .................................................................................................... 705 14.8. Paragraph ..................................................................................................... 708 15. Ekler ........................................................................................................... 714 15.1. Frequently used conjunctions ................................................................... 714 15.1.1. As ..................................................................................................................................... 714 15.1.2. That .................................................................................................................................. 725 In that + clause: olması bakımından, olması nedeniyle ........................................................ 727 15.1.3. While ................................................................................................................................ 729 15.1.4. Since ................................................................................................................................ 731 15.1.5. Or ..................................................................................................................................... 733 15.2. Conversation ................................................................................................ 734 Getting acquainted...................................................................................................................... 734 Opinion ......................................................................................................................................... 738 Place and Directions .................................................................................................................. 744 Hotel .............................................................................................................................................. 747 Inviting people ............................................................................................................................. 749 16. References ................................................................................................ 752 10