Dr. Cahit Karakuş “Read, Memorize and Remember” 2013 1 Balbiti 2 CONTENTS 1. Sentence Structure ................................................................................................................ 7 1.1. Sentences ........................................................................................................................ 7 1.1.1. Word Place in the Sentences ................................................................................. 13 1.1.2. Subject .................................................................................................................... 15 1.1.3. Subject and Predicate ............................................................................................ 18 1.1.4. Object ..................................................................................................................... 21 1.1.5. Questions ............................................................................................................... 23 1.1.6. Negative Constructions ......................................................................................... 32 1.2. Types of Sentence ......................................................................................................... 37 1.2.1. Mood and Voice ..................................................................................................... 43 1.2.2. Agreement and Disagreement .............................................................................. 46 1.2.3. Inversion Structure ................................................................................................ 48 1.3. Punctuation ................................................................................................................... 53 1.4. Conversation ................................................................................................................. 63 2. Nouns ................................................................................................................................... 77 2.1. Plural Noun .................................................................................................................... 80 2.2. Noun Phrase .................................................................................................................. 82 2.3. Determiners: a /an, the ................................................................................................ 83 2.4. Numbers and Numerals ................................................................................................ 85 2.5. Suffixs and Prefixes ....................................................................................................... 94 2.6. Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 105 3. Pronouns ............................................................................................................................ 107 3.1. Personal Pronouns ...................................................................................................... 107 3.1.1. Subject Pronouns ................................................................................................. 107 3.1.2. Object Pronouns .................................................................................................. 111 3.1.3. Adjective and Possesive Pronouns...................................................................... 112 3.2. Indefinite Pronouns .................................................................................................... 113 3.2.1. Indefinite Pronouns as the Subject ..................................................................... 113 3.2.2. Every, Some, Any, No .......................................................................................... 116 3.2.3. Each, Else, One, All, Other, Both, Either, Neither ............................................... 118 3.2.4. Quantifiers ........................................................................................................... 122 3.3. Demonstrative Pronouns ............................................................................................ 124 3.4. Relative Pronouns ....................................................................................................... 125 3.5. Reflexive Pronouns ..................................................................................................... 126 3.6. Interrogative Pronouns ............................................................................................... 127 3.7. Preventing to Repeats ................................................................................................ 132 4. Verbs .................................................................................................................................. 135 4.1. Verb Types ................................................................................................................... 139 4.2. Verb Patterns .............................................................................................................. 146 4.3. To be ............................................................................................................................ 149 4.4. Have ............................................................................................................................. 153 4.5. There ............................................................................................................................ 157 4.6. Phrasel Verbs............................................................................................................... 159 4.7. Causative Form ............................................................................................................ 160 3 5. Preposition ......................................................................................................................... 162 5.1. Time and Date ............................................................................................................. 162 5.2. Position, Condition and Place ..................................................................................... 167 5.3. Common Prepositions ................................................................................................. 172 5.4. Complex Prepositions ................................................................................................. 182 5.5. Preposition (by, of, in, on...) + Ving /Noun /Noun Phrase ........................................ 184 5.6. Verb and Preposition .................................................................................................. 187 6. Verbals ............................................................................................................................... 189 6.1. Gerunds ....................................................................................................................... 189 6.2. Gerund with Preposition ............................................................................................ 191 6.3. Infinitive ...................................................................................................................... 193 6.4. Participle ...................................................................................................................... 210 7. Modals ................................................................................................................................ 217 7.1. Auxiliary Verbs ............................................................................................................ 219 7.2. Ability: Can, Could, Be able to .................................................................................... 227 7.3. Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better ........................................................................ 229 7.4. Obligation and Necessity: Must, Have to, Be to, Need, Dare .................................. 232 7.5. Requests and Permission: May, Can, Could, Will, Would ......................................... 236 7.6. Prohibition: Must not ................................................................................................. 240 7.7. Possibility: May, Might ............................................................................................... 242 7.8. Strong Probability: Must ............................................................................................. 247 7.9. Modal Perfect .............................................................................................................. 251 7.10. Suggestion, Deduction, Expectation ....................................................................... 253 7.11. Habitual Activities: Used to .................................................................................... 254 7.12. Modal Adverbs and Predicative Modal Adjectives ................................................ 256 8. Tenses ................................................................................................................................. 257 8.1. Present Tense .............................................................................................................. 259 8.1.1. Present Continuous Tense ................................................................................... 259 8.1.2. Present Simple Tense .......................................................................................... 260 8.1.3. Present Perfecte Tense ........................................................................................ 262 8.1.4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense ...................................................................... 266 8.2. Past Tense ................................................................................................................... 268 8.2.1. Past Continuous Tense ........................................................................................ 268 8.2.2. Past Simple Tense ................................................................................................ 269 8.2.3. Past Perfect Tense ............................................................................................... 271 8.2.4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense ........................................................................... 272 8.3. Future Tense ................................................................................................................ 273 8.3.1. Future Simple Tense ............................................................................................ 273 8.3.2. Future Continuous Tense .................................................................................... 275 8.3.3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense ........................................................................ 276 8.3.4. Future Perfect Tense............................................................................................ 277 8.4. Sequence of Tenses in the Clauses ............................................................................. 278 8.5. Passive Voice ............................................................................................................... 282 4 9. Modifiers ............................................................................................................................ 291 9.1. Adjectives .................................................................................................................... 291 9.1.1. Nouns as Adjectives ............................................................................................. 299 9.1.2. Adjective before Preposition .............................................................................. 299 9.1.3. Adjective Prepositional Phrases .......................................................................... 302 9.2. Adverbs ........................................................................................................................ 304 9.3. Comparative ................................................................................................................ 315 9.4. Superlative .................................................................................................................. 323 9.4.1. Most ..................................................................................................................... 327 9.4.2. Lower degree: Less and Least ............................................................................. 328 9.5. Emphasis ...................................................................................................................... 330 9.5.1. So, Such ................................................................................................................ 331 9.5.2. Quite, Too, Enough, Well .................................................................................... 335 9.5.3. Rather ................................................................................................................... 337 9.5.4. Introductory Phrases that Add Emphasis ........................................................... 338 10. Conditional Sentences .................................................................................................... 339 10.1. If Clauses .................................................................................................................. 339 10.2. Mixed Forms ............................................................................................................ 344 10.3. Implied Condition .................................................................................................... 345 10.4. Inversion of If Clauses (Omitting If) ........................................................................ 346 10.5. Case Conditions ....................................................................................................... 347 11. Noun Clauses................................................................................................................... 353 11.1. Noun Clause as Subject of a Sentence .................................................................... 355 11.2. Noun Clause as Object of a Sentence ..................................................................... 356 11.3. Noun Clause as Complement .................................................................................. 357 11.4. If / Whether ............................................................................................................. 358 11.5. Questions in Noun Clauses ..................................................................................... 361 11.6. The Subjunctive Form in Noun Clauses .................................................................. 365 11.6.1. Wish .................................................................................................................. 372 11.6.2. Hope ................................................................................................................. 376 11.6.3. Would rather .................................................................................................... 376 12. The Reported Speech (Direct-Indirect) .......................................................................... 379 12.1. Reported Question .................................................................................................. 386 12.2. Requests, Advice, Promises or Instructions: .......................................................... 388 12.3. Special Forms (Parahrave) in Reported Speech: .................................................... 389 13. Relative Clauses .............................................................................................................. 391 13.1. Defining Relative Clauses ........................................................................................ 391 13.2. Coordinators ............................................................................................................ 394 13.3. Prepositions in Adjective Clauses ........................................................................... 395 5 14. Conjunctions ................................................................................................................... 399 14.1. Coordinating Conjunctions...................................................................................... 400 14.2. Correlative Conjunctions ......................................................................................... 402 14.3. Subordinating (Adverbial) Conjunction .................................................................. 404 14.3.1. Time .................................................................................................................. 408 14.3.2. Place ................................................................................................................. 415 14.3.3. Purpose ............................................................................................................. 416 14.4. Transitions and Connectors .................................................................................... 418 14.4.1. Contrast ............................................................................................................ 421 14.4.2. Reason .............................................................................................................. 428 14.4.3. Result, Summation, Conclusion ....................................................................... 432 14.4.4. Emphasis ........................................................................................................... 433 14.4.5. Addition, Alternatives, Reformulation ............................................................ 434 14.4.6. Listing, Correction, Exemplification ................................................................ 436 14.4.7. Explanation, Similary ....................................................................................... 437 15. Reduction ........................................................................................................................ 439 15.1. Reduction in Noun Clauses ..................................................................................... 439 15.2. Reduction in Relative Clauses ................................................................................. 444 15.3. Reduction in Adverbial Clauses - Participle Clauses ............................................. 451 15.4. Ving, V3 .................................................................................................................... 457 15.4.1. To be + V3 ......................................................................................................... 469 15.4.2. Analysis of the Reduction Clauses ................................................................... 470 16. The Hints ......................................................................................................................... 473 16.1. Sentence Analysis .................................................................................................... 477 16.2. Specific Dictionary ................................................................................................... 478 16.3. Specific Conjunctions .............................................................................................. 480 16.3.1. While ................................................................................................................ 481 16.3.2. When ................................................................................................................ 482 16.3.3. Since.................................................................................................................. 482 16.3.4. That ................................................................................................................... 484 16.3.5. As ...................................................................................................................... 485 16.4. Exam Topics ............................................................................................................. 492 16.4.1. Paragraph ......................................................................................................... 492 16.4.2. Sentence Completion ....................................................................................... 495 16.4.3. Diyalogues ........................................................................................................ 497 16.4.4. Paragraph Completion ..................................................................................... 499 16.4.5. Restatement ..................................................................................................... 500 16.4.6. Translation ....................................................................................................... 502 16.4.7. Irrelevant sentences ........................................................................................ 504 17. References....................................................................................................................... 506 6 1. Sentence Structure Sentences are used to express ourselves clearly and understand what others have expressed. Type of sentences: statement (declarative), question (Interrogative), exclamation (exclamatory), and command (imperative). Sentences can be in the form of simple, complex, or clauses. Abbreviations: N: noun; NP: noun phrase; V: verb; VP: verb phrase; Adj: adjective; AdjP: adjective phrase; Adv: adverb; AdvP: adverb phrase; Pre: preposition; PP: prepositional phrase; Det: determinative; Subord: subordinator; Coord: coordinator; Interj: interjection. 1.1. Sentences Sentence parts: Subjects (S), verb (V), object (O), complement(C). The predicate is usually represented by a main verb or by the combination of an auxiliary or modal verb with a main verb. The main pattern of basic word order in the sentences: Subject + verb /Predicate + Object. S + Auxiliary Verb + V + O + C + adverb + adverb of place + adverb of time. S + V + O + adv: He drove the car fast. S + to be + adj: We will be late and we will miss the bus. S + V: The bomb exploded. S + V + C: Life is mysterious. Subject The subject is typically a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. - The dictionary helps us find words. - The man who is sitting over there told me that he just bought a ticket to Tahiti. - To eat six different kinds of vegetables a day is healthy. - Playing basketball takes up too much of her time. - The newspapers called him as a brave man. - His friends put his books in the national library. (Where) - Dolphins swim, frogs jump, snakes crawl, and birds fly. - Birds sing, cows moo, cats mew, and dogs bark. - John is a car mechanic, and Mike repairs refrigerators. Verb A verb describes an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn, argue), an occurrence (happen, become, change), or a state of being (be, exist, feel, stand). - We went home straight after the show. - The goat ate my homework. - John studies English and French. - Lucy enjoys listening to music. 7 Object An object is a noun or pronoun that is governed by a verb or a preposition. There are 3 kinds of objects: a direct object, an indirect object, and an object of a preposition. A direct object receives the action of the verb. In other words, it is directly affected by verb. - I saw her. - He broke the window. - He is making a pancake. - They noticed the bone. An indirect object is the receiver of the direct object, and it usually comes just before the direct object. (Kime?) - He gave his mother flowers. - Jack is telling them the news. - He bought his friend a present. "His friend" is the indirect object. Genelde kime sorusunun yanıtıdır. The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun governed by a preposition. - The cat ran under the car. (“The car” is the object of the preposition “under”.) - This is one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong) - Are those biscuits on the table for the dogs? - Emma gave Ronnie the book. (Ronnie is the indirect object.) Emma gave the book to Ronnie. (Ronnie is the object of the preposition.) And by the way, these two sentences basically have the same meaning. How can you tell if a word is an indirect object or the object of the preposition? • If it comes just after a preposition – then it's the object of the preposition. • If it does not come just after a preposition – then it's an indirect object. • Also, the indirect object is usually followed by the direct object. The object of the preposition does not. Pronoun We use pronouns in place of nouns and noun phrases. • Subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, you, we, they • Object pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, you, us, them • Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, your, our, their • Reflexive: myself, yourself, themselves • Indefinite: somebody, anyone, everything, etc. Complement A complement is a word or a structure that completes the meaning of a verb, a subject, or an object. - Sheila is a nurse. (adding information about Sheila) - All of them seemed surprised. Verb complements are direct and indirect objects that stand after the verb: - She gave the book to Anna. - Give me a pen. Subject complement in the form of a noun is called predicative noun or predicative nominal; in the form of an adjective – predicative adjective (or predicate adjective). Subject complement stands after the linking verb (it is predicative complement): - It is a book. - The book is interesting. 8 Complements which add more information about an object are called object complements. Object complement stands after the object to which it refers: - I find it strange. - He makes me very angry. (adding information “about me”) Adjective Adjectives modify or describe features and qualities of people, animals and things represented by nouns and pronouns. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some information about an object’s size, shape, age, color, origin or material. When an adjective is used with a noun, the usual order is “adjective + noun”: a yellow balloon - That’s a big house. - Look at the grey horse. - All dogs have tails, but some dogs have long tails. Adjectives can go before the noun (attributive) or after linking verbs such as be, become, seem (predicative): - What a beautiful flower! (attributive) - This bridge looks unsafe. (predicative) With numbers and with words like first, last, next, the usual order is first/next + number + adjective + noun: - I don’t have to work for the next four days. - That’s the second large study on unemployment this year. Most commonly, the adjectives “ill” and “well” are used after a verb and not before a noun: I feel ill. Most common adjectives are members of a pair of opposites: Beautiful – ugly, dead – alive, happy – sad, rough – smooth, big – small, dry – wet, heavy – light, tall – short, cold – hot, good – bad Adverb Adverbs are used to add more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a clause or a whole sentence and, less commonly, about a noun phrase. Adverbs are words that modify: • a verb (He drove slowly. How did he drive?) • an adjective (He drove a very fast car. How fast was his car?) • another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. How slowly did she move?) Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective can not modify an adverb. Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree. - The student who reads fastest will finish first. As an adverb modifies the verb of a sentence, it is called an Adverb Clause: - When this class is over, we're going to the movies. The adverbs of frequency "often, generally, frequently, rarely, regularly, sometimes" are often placed between the subject and the main verb in the simple tenses but may also be placed after the main verb (or after the object, if any). 9 Preposition and Postposition A preposition is used with a noun (or pronoun) and stands before it, forming a phrase that functions as a prepositional indirect object (about Tom; for me) or as an adverbial modifier (under the table; before dinner). Prepositions are traditionally divided into the classes: • Place: on the street, in the house, at the airport • Direction: to the river, through the park • Time: at two o'clock, in 1995, for a year, on Monday • Manner: by train, with a key We commonly use prepositions to show a relationship in space or time or a logical relationship between two or more people, places or things. Prepositions are most commonly followed by a noun phrase or pronoun: - The last time I saw him he was walking down the road. - I’ll meet you in the cafe opposite the cinema. - It was difficult to sleep during the flight. - It was the worst storm since the 1980s. - Give that to me. A prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the object of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. The patterns for a prepositional phrase: preposition + modifier(s) + noun / pronoun / gerund / clause Preposition as adjective modifies a noun or pronoun: - The windows of your house were broken. Preposition as adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb: - The children played for two hours. - We will be back in a few days. - They drove to Glasgow When a preposition plays as adverb of time/place standing at the beginning of sentence, verb will be put before subject and we will not use auxiliary. - In the morning is the best time to water plants. Morning time is the best time to water plants. A verb agrees with its subject even when the verb comes before the subject. - There are wild dogs in our neighborhood. - Where are the children’s coats? An adverb or a phrase beginning with a preposition: - She's very tall, as is her mother. (as her mother is) “As” is a conjunction and an adverb and is used before a clause. - She enjoys all kinds of music, as do I. (as I do.) You can certainly begin a sentence with a preposition. - Off I go (I've just done it), “off” is an adverb rather than a preposition. Similar examples are In I go, On I go, Out I go and Up I go. A postposition is used with a verb and stands after it, forming an idiomatic phrase with this verb (phrasal verb). For example: come in, get back, turn out, put on, break down, pick up, take off, think over. 10