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RAPPORT 20 13:2 Cecilia Carlsson Helena Johansson Private standards -leveling the playing field for global competition in the food supply chain? AgriFood Economics Centre Private standards – leveling the playing field for global competition in the food supply chain? Cecilia Carlsson Helena Johansson For information contact: Cecilia Carlsson 046-222 07 98, [email protected] Helena Johansson 046-222 07 96, [email protected] AgriFood Economics Centre Box 730 220 07 Lund http://www.agrifood.se Cecilia Carlsson Helena Johansson Report 2013:2 Tryckt av JMS Mediasystem AB Vellinge, 2013 FOREWORD As the world is becoming more and more globalized, domestic policy choices increasing- ly have implications for our relations with the surrounding world. One such aspect is how the competitiveness of domestic producers is affected when they face stricter legis- lation than their foreign competitors. A good can be said to embody certain process characteristics derived from the chosen production method, like being produced in an environmentally friendly way or with respect to labor rights. Such process characteris- tics, however, often come at a cost for the producer. Hence, concerns have been raised about the difficulties of defending domestic policy choices that lead to higher production costs and thereby reduce competitiveness. In the EU, the debate focuses on the risk of in- creased import competition following higher agricultural standards, motivated by envi- ronmental protection, animal welfare etc. It may seem an obvious case – of course competition should be fair – but the issue is more complicated than it may seem at first sight. Traditionally, national legislation de- termines the rules a farmer must follow. However, in order to enhance food safety or promote good agricultural practice, retailers and food processing firms are increasingly demanding that suppliers comply with private standards. As both domestic and foreign producers may be covered by these requirements, the question is: Does the increasing use of private standards mean that the competitive conditions on global markets actually are more alike than differences in legislation between countries would suggest? This report complements Societal concerns – Domestic policy choice and international competi- tiveness (AgriFood Report 2011:2) which empirically tests if competitiveness and trade flows within the EU are affected by differences in regulations to protect animal welfare. It also analyzes if preferential treatment, like import restrictions, should be allowed to protect goods produced in a way that reflects a society’s societal concerns. In this report, the focus is on private standards and the extent to which such market requirements re- sult in more equal conditions for domestic and foreign producers. AgriFood would like to thank the Standardisation Research Centre (SRC), Lund Univer- sity, for funding and fruitful co-operation, as well as the interviewed firm representa- tives, who were willing to share their views on the role of private standards in practice. Lund, April 2013 Ewa Rabinowicz Helena Johansson Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Lund University TABLE OF CONTENTS SAMMANFATTNING 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 BACKGROUND 11 2.1 Food – a good with special characteristics 11 The need for public regulation of food safety 11 Private firms´ increasing responsibility for food safety 12 Consumer and firm interest in the agricultural production process 13 2.2 What are standards? 15 Different types of standards 15 2.3 Classification of private standards 17 Private business-to-consumer standards (B2C) 18 Private business-to-business standards (B2B) 18 2.4 Private standards and societal concerns 20 3 CONTENTS OF PRIVATE STANDARDS IN THE FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN 23 3.1 Description of private standards 23 The GlobalG.A.P. Standard 23 BRC Global Standard for Food Safety 24 The multiplicity of private standards 25 3.2 Harmonization of private standards 26 3.3 What are the contents of the private standards in the food supply chain? 28 4 THE STRINGENCY OF PRIVATE STANDARDS COMPARED TO LEGISLATION 33 4.1 Comparing GlobalG.A.P.- and public regulations on animal welfare 33 What is animal welfare? 34 Aggravations affecting the comparison 35 4.2 Requirements on pig production 37 4.3 Requirements on poultry production 39 4.4 Requirements on cattle production 41 4.5 Summarizing discussion 43 5 THE ROLE OF PRIVATE STANDARDS IN THE FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN 47 5.1 Previous research on the use of standards 47 Retailer surveys 47 5.2 Case studies of three Swedish firms 49 Choice of case studies 49 ICA 50 Bergendahls Food 55 Findus 58 5.3 Discussion 62 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 65 6.1 What private standards are used in the Swedish food supply chain? 65 6.2 Do private standards expand beyond the issue of food safety? 66 Type 1: Harmonized private standards for food safety 66 Type 2: Competing private standards for firm profiling 67 6.3 Does the use of private standards result in a harmonization of production conditions in different countries? 69 6.4 How do private standards relate to national legislation? 71 How to interpret “more stringent”? 72 Difficulties in comparing private standards and public regulations 73 The different roles of national legislation and private standards 74 Supplier perspective on the increased use of private standards 75 6.5 Future research on private standards 75 REFERENCES 77 APPENDIX 91 Other private standards for food safety 91 IFS Food 91 SQF 91 FSSC 22000 92 GRMS 92 PrimusGFS 93 CanadaGAP 93 Other private standards for production methods 94 SA 8000 94 BSCI 94 ETI 94 WRAP 95 SAI Platform 95 FLA 95 Sammanfattning Privata standarder inom livsmedelssektorn innehåller krav på hur jord- bruks- och livsmedelsproduktionen ska utformas för att möta vissa krite- rier. Denna studie fokuserar i huvudsak på privata så kallade business-to- business-standarder (B2B), som är verksamma mellan aktörer i livsme- delskedjan. Om detaljhandel och förädlingsföretag använder privata bu- siness-to-business-standarder som ett krav på leverantörer i stor omfatt- ning kan de bli de facto obligatoriska, alltså tvingande trots att de inte är en del av lagstiftningen. Nationell lagstiftning som rör produktionsmetoder, till exempel med av- seende på djurvälfärd och miljöhänsyn, omfattar enbart inhemsk pro- duktion. Privata standarder kan dock användas för att ställa sådana krav också på import. Om så är fallet, och om de används som de facto-krav för leverantörer, kan privata standarder harmonisera kraven på produkt- ionsvillkor mellan länder och minska skillnader i konkurrenskraft som beror på skillnader i nationell lagstiftning. I denna rapport undersöks huruvida privata standarder därmed skapar mer likvärdiga förutsättningar för globalt konkurrerande producenter i olika länder. Resultaten visar att privata standarder innehåller krav på både säkra livsmedel och djurvälfärd, miljöhänsyn och arbetsvillkor, men att kraven ställs på olika sätt och av olika anledningar. Eftersom säkra livsmedel är viktigt för hela branschens rykte och inte bara för ett enskilt företags förtroende, har företag incitament att samarbeta för att säkerställa att maten som säljs är säker att konsumera. Företags krav på säkra livsmedel är därför relativt harmoniserade på internationell nivå. Detta innebär att de har potential att utjämna kraven som ställs på produ- center i olika länder. Information om hur företagen använder privata standarder är knapphändig, så denna studie innehåller fallstudier av två detaljhandelskedjor och ett förädlingsföretag i den svenska livsmedelssek- torn. Dessa visar att tredjepartscertifiering av en privat standard för säkra livsmedel i regel är ett krav som leverantörer måste uppfylla. Sammanta- 3 get indikerar detta att privata standarder bidrar till en harmonisering av kraven på säkra livsmedel i olika länder. Privata standarders krav på produktionsmetoder är mer heterogena, ef- tersom icke-harmoniserade privata standarder fungerar som ett profile- ringsverktyg och marknadsföringsinstrument för det enskilda företaget. Det finns exempel på privata standarder vars krav är hårdare än motsva- rande krav inom lagstiftningen i produktionslandet. Trots att endast ett li- tet antal företag inkluderas i fallstudierna visar dessa att privata standar- der som ställer krav på produktionsmetoder skiljer sig åt från företag till företag. För att kunna avgöra om resultaten är kännetecknande för livs- medelssektorn generellt behövs mer forskning på företagsnivå. 4

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RAPPORT 20 1 3:2 Cecilia Carlsson Helena Johansson Private standards-leveling the playing field for global competition in the food supply chain?
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