TEACHING by PRINCIPLES An Interactive Approach Sin CoM -Tave0T-Yel-Wu -x-TeF-Teloenva SECOND EDITION H. DOUGLAS BROWN CONTENTS Preface ‘Text Credits PART I, FOUNDATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE Chapter 1 Getting Started {A Classroom Observation, 3 Beneath the Lesson,9 Topies for Discussion, Action, and Research, 11 For Your Further Reading, 12 Chapter 2A “Methodical” History of Language Teaching Approach, Method, and Technique, 14 ‘Changing Winds and Shifting Sands, 16 ‘The Grammar Transition Method, 18 Gouin and the Series Method, 19 ‘The Direct Method, 21 ‘The Audiolingual Method, 22 Cognitive Code Learning, 24 Designer” Methods of the Spirited Seventies, 24 ‘Community Language Learning, 25, Suggestopedia, 27 The silent Way 28 ‘Total Physical Response, 29, The Natural Approach, 31 Beyond Method: NotionshFunctional Syllabuses,32 Topies for Discussion, Action, and Research, 36 For Your Further Reading, 37 B Chapter 3 The Present: An Informed “Approach” 39 ‘An Enlightened, Eclectic Approach, 40 ‘Communicative Language Teaching, 42 Learner Centered Instrction, 46 Cooperative and Collaborative Learning, 47 Ingerctve Learning, 48 Whole Language Education, 48 Contenetased Instruction, 49 ‘Taskibased lastruction, 50 Toples for Discussion, Action, and Research, 51 For Your Purthor Reading, 52 Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles 54 Cognitive Principles, $5, “Automatic, 55. Meaningful Learning, 56 ‘The Anticipation of Reward, 57 Intrinsic Motivation, $9 Strategic Investment, 59 AMfectve Principles, 61 Language Ego, 61 ‘Self-Confidence, 62 RiskTaking, 63 ‘The Language Culture Connection, 64 Linguistic Principles, 65 ‘The Native Language Etect, 65 Incerlanguage, 67 ‘Communicative Competence, 68 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 70 For Your Further Reading, 71 Chapter 5 Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom n Defining Mosivation, 72 “A Bchavioristic Definitio Cognitive Definitions, 73 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 75. Intrinsic Motivation in Education, 77 Intrinsic Motivation in the Second Language Classroom, 80 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research 83, For Your Further Reading, 84 cc PART Il. CONTEXTS OF TEACHING Chapter 6 Learner Variables I: Teaching Across Age Levels. 86 ‘Teaching Children, 87 Intellectual Development, 87 Attention Span, 88 Sensory Input, 89 Affective Factors, 89 ‘Authentic, Meaningful Language, 90 “Teaching Adults, 90 Teaching Teens, 91 Topies for Discussion, Action, and Research, 93 For Your Furtber Reading, 4 Chapter 7 Learner Variables Il: Teaching Across Proficiency Levels 96 Defining Proficiency Levels, 96 Teaching Beginning Levels, 98 “Teaching Imermediate Levels, 103 ‘Teaching Advanced Levels, 10 Topies for Discussion, Action, and Researeb, 13 For Your Furtber Reading, 14 Chapter 8 Sociopolitical and Institutional Contexts 15 Sociopotitical Contents, 115 Second and Foreign Language Contexts, 116 | English a5 an International Language, 118, | Language Policy sues, 119 Institutional Contexts, 120 ( "lementary and Secondary Schools, ( Institutions of Higher Education, ‘Mepies for Discussion, Acton, and Research, 125 For Your Furtber Reading, 126 ___ PART III. DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING CLASSROOM LESSONS "Chapter 9 Techniques, Textbooks, and Technology 128 Techniques Redefined, 128 ‘Geregorzing Techniques Bit of History, 130, Taxonomy of Techniques, 133 ‘Texbooks, 136, Ouber Written Texts, 141 Technology in the Language Classroom, 143, } ] } } j Computer Assisted language Learning (CALL), 145, Topies for Discussion, Action, and Research, M7 For Your Further Reading, 48 Chapter 10 How to Plan a Lesson Format ofa Lesson Plan, 149 Guidelines for Lesson Plannin Sample Lesson Plan, 156 Toples for Discussion, Action, and Research, 161 For Your PFurtber Reading, 162 152 Chapter 11 Interactive Language Teaching I: Initiating Interaction ‘What Is Interaction? 165, Interactive Principles, 166 Roles of the Interactive Teacher, 166 Questioning Strategies for Interactive Learning, 169, Tophes for Discussion, Action, and Research, 174 For Your Further Reading, 175 Chapter 12 Interactive Language Teaching Ii: Sustaining Interaction Through Group Work Advantages of Group Work, 177 Exctses for Avoiding, Group Work, 179 Implementing, Group Work in Your Classroom, 182 ‘Selecting Appropriate Group Techniques, 182 Planning Group Work, 187 Monitoring the Tas, 189) Debriefing, 189 Topkes for Discussion, Action, and Research, 190 For Your burtber Reading, 191 Chapter 13 Classroom Management The Physical Eaviconment ofthe Classroom, 192 Your Voice and Body Language, 194 oplanned Teaching: Midstream Lesson Changes, 195 Teaching Under Adverse Circumstances, 196 Teachers Roles and Styes,200 Creating a Positive Chssroom Climate, 202 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 204 Tor Your Furtber Reading, 205, 149 164 176 192 PARADA AAAS AAA AAA AAAS AAS ASRS ASR Chapter 14 Strategies-Based Instruction Strategic Investment, 208, Good Language Learners, 209 Soles of Successful Language Learning, 210 Developing Student Selfawareness of Ses, ow to Teach Strategies in the Classroom, 217, =Packaged” Models of SBI, 220 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 227 For Your Further Reading, 228 PART IV. TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS Chapter 15 Integrating the “Four Skills" ‘Why Integration? 233, Content-Based Instruction, 234 Theme-Based Instruction, 235, Experiential Learning, 238 ‘The Episode Hypothesis, 240 “Tasktiased Teaching, 242, Toptes for Discussion, Acton, and Research, 245 For Your Further Reading, 246 Chapter 16 Teaching Listening LUstening Comprehension in Pedagogical Research, 247 An Interactive Model of Listening Comprehension, 249 “Types of Spoken Language, 250 What Makes Listening Dificul?, 252 Microsils of Listening Comprehension, 255 Types of Classroom Listening Performance, 255 Priniples for Designing Listening Techniques, 258 Listening Techniques from Beginning to Advanced, 260 Toptes for Discussion, Action, and Research, 265 For Your Further Reading, 266 Chapter 17. Teaching Speaking ‘Oral Communication Skls in Pedagogical Research, 267 “Tepes of Spoken Language, 269 ‘What Makes Speaking Difficult, 270 Microskils of Oral Communication, 271 ‘Types of Casscoom Speaking Performance, 271 Principles for Designing Speaking Techniques, 275 ‘Teaching Conversation, 276, 207 232 247 267 ‘Teaching Pronunciation, 283 ‘A Model for Correction of Speech Errors ,288 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 294 For Your Further Reading, 295 Chapter 18 Teaching Reading 298 Research on Reading a Second Language, 298 ‘Types of Written Language, 302 Characteristics of Writen Language, 303 Microsils for Reading Comprehension, 306 Stratexics for Reading Comprehension, 306, “Types of Cassroom Reading Peeformance, 312 Principles for Designing Interactive Reading Techniques, 313, Two Reading Lessons, 316 Toptes for Discussion, Action, and Research, 3 For Your Furlber Reading, 332 Chapter 19 Teaching Writing 334 Research on Second Language Writing, 34 Types of Written Language, 341 Characteristics of Written Language:A Writer's View, 341 Microskils for Writing, 342 Types of Classroom Writing Performance, 343, Principles for Designing Writing Techniques, 346, Evaluating Student Writing, 356 Topics for Discussion, Acton, and Research, 358 For Your Furtber Reading, 360 Chapter 20. Form-Focused Instruction 361 The Place of Grammar, 362 To'Teach of Not to Teach Grammar, 363, Issues About How to'Teach Gramma, 365 Grammar Techniques, 368 Grammar Sequencing in Textbooks and Curricula, 373 [A*Word About Vocabulary Teaching, 375. Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 380 Tor Your Further Reading, 382 k ] p y b ‘ ( Y P ] ] PART V. ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILLS Chapter 21 Language Assessment I: Basic Concepts in Test Development Tehat Isa Test, 386 Pracicalty, 386 Belabilty, 386 Nabi, 387 ‘Content Vii, 388 Face Vay, 388 Construct Validity, 389) Kinds of Tests, 390 EEcorical Developments in Language Testing, 392 ‘aezeScale Language Proficiency Testing, 394 nl Proficiency Testing, 395 Cecical Language Testing: Ethical Issues, 397 pics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 399 for Your Further Reading, 400 ‘Chapter 22 Language Assessment II: Practical Classroom Applications Asscsing, Testing, and Teaching, 401 ‘Sever Developments in Language Testing, 403 ‘Penciples for Designing Elective Classcoom Tests, 408, some Practical Steps to Test Construction, 411 sSeermative Assessment Options, 415 Self and Peer Assessments, 415 Journals, 418 Conferences, 418 Portfolios, 418 Cooperative Test Construction, 419 Assessment and Teaching: Partners inthe Learning Process, 420, Sips for Discussion, Acton, and Research, 421 = Your Furtber Reading, 422 PART VI. LIFELONG LEARNING ‘Chapter 23 Continuing Your Teacher Education ak Performers, 427 ‘Tac Good" Language Teacher, 429 \Gmeroom Observation, 429 (Gasseoom Research, 431 excher Collaboration: Learning from Each Other, $40 384 426 itical Pedagogy, 443 Agents for Change, 445, Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research, 445 For Your Purtber Reading, 447 Bibliography 449 Name Index 466 Subject Index 469 PREFACE [As we now gradually travel beyond the millennial milepost, we can took back with some pride atthe recently completed century's accumulation of knowledge about second language learning and teaching. Such was not always the case. The frst forty years of the twentieth century saw litle ifany development ofa field of lan- ‘guage pedagogy: But by the middle ofthe century, anguage teachers witnessed the “birth of a disciplined approach to sceond language learning. and tcacting ‘methodological frameworks were the subject of applied linguistic research on the nature of language leaming and the successful acquisition of languages in clss- rooms. Yet the nascent profession was hard put to come up with viable answers 10 ‘questions about how to teach interactive skills in the clasroom, By the 1970s, ‘second language acquisition was establishing itself asa discipline in ts own right, asserting its place not merely as an offshoot of linguistics of psychology. The resulting research ofthis adolescent profession was bepinning to provide some pro- ound observations about communicative language teaching. As the field gathered ‘momentum, journals, professional organizations, university departments, and research studies grew with amazing speed. ‘By the last decade ofthe twentieth century. our storchouse of information about ‘how to successfully teach foreign languages had atsined a remarkable level of sophis- ‘ication, Dozens of respected periodicals and hundreds of textbooks and anthologies ccurenty offer ample evidence that language teachers must be technicians, well ‘versed in the pedagogical options available to meet the needs ofthe various ages Pur poses, proficiency levels, skills, and contexts of language leamers around the globe. PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE ‘This Second Edition of Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy syexhesizes that accumulation of knowledge into a practical, principled approach to teaching English aa second or foreign language. It is a book for prospective and new teachers who nced to learn how o walk into a clss-