DOMESTIC TERRORISM IN AFRICA: D O DEFINING, ADDRESSING M E S T I C AND UNDERSTANDING T E R R O R I ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN S M I N A SECURITY F R I C A : D E F I N I N G Terrorism Studies & , A D Research Program D R E S S I N G IISSSS HHeeaadd OOffiffi ccee A N Block D, Brooklyn Court, VVeeaalle Street D New Muckleneuk,, PPrretoria U N Tel: (27-12) 346 9500 FFaax: (27-12) 346 9570 D E-mail: isss@@issafrica.org E R S ISS AAdddis Ababa Offi ce T A FFiirrsst Floor, Ki-Ab Building, N AAlleexxaannddeerr PPuusshhkkiinn SSttrreeeett, D I Pushkin Square, Addis Ababa N G TTeelll::: (((225511-1111)) 337722-11115544//55//66 FFaaxx:: ((225511-1111)) 337722 55995544 I T E-mail: addisababa@@issafrica.orgg S I M ISS Cape Town Offi ce P 67 Roeland Square, Drury Lane Gardens A C Cape Town 8001 South Africa T TTTTTeell:: ((2277-2211)) 446611 77221111 FFaaxx:: ((2277-2211)) 446611 77221133 O N E-mail: [email protected] H U ISS Nairobi Offi ce M 55thh FFllloooooor, LLanddmarkk PPllaza A N Argwings Kodheeekkk RRRoad, Nairobi, Kenya S Tel: (254 -20) 300 5726/8 FFFaaaxxx: (254-20) 271 2902 E C E-mail: [email protected] U R ISS Pretoria Offi ce IT Tel:B (2lo7c-E1k-N2 mC)e ,3aww Bi4l r:w6M o p 9owur5kec.0lkityso0lnes r niaCaefF@oruauiikxcsrs:,at a(P,. 2Vfor7reeir-cta1goa2ler.)oi aS4rtg6r0e e0t998 YW Edited by Wafula Okumu and Anneli Botha 5 and 6 November 2007 a fu la O k This publication was made possible through funding provided by the um ISBN 978-1-920114-80-0 Norwegian Government. In addition, general Institute funding is provided by the u a n Governments of Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden. d A n n e li B o th a 9 781920 114800 Terrorism Studies & Research Program As a leading African human security research institution, the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) works towards a stable and peaceful Africa characterised by sustainable development, human rights, the rule of law, democracy, collaborative security and gender mainstreaming. The ISS realises this vision by: ■ Undertaking applied research, training and capacity building ■ Working collaboratively with others ■ Facilitating and supporting policy formulation ■ Monitoring trends and policy implementation ■ Collecting, interpreting and disseminating information ■ Networking on national, regional and international levels © 2009, Institute for Security Studies Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers. The opinions expressed do not necessarily refl ect those of the Institute, its trustees, members of the Council or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity. ISBN978-1-920114-80-0 First published by the Institute for Security Studies, P O Box 1787, Brooklyn Square 0075 Pretoria, South Africa www.issafrica.org Cover photograph iStockphoto Design, Typesetting and Printing Marketing Support Services +27 12 346-2168 Domestic terrorism in Africa: Defi ning, addressing and understanding its impact on human security Edited by Wafulu Okumu and Anneli Botha 5 and 6 November 2007 Contents About the authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Wafula Okumu Part One Categorising domestic terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Terminology associated with political violence and asymmetric warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Morten Bøås Challenges in categorising domestic terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Tom Imobighe Transnational and domestic terrorism in Africa: Any linkages? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Andrews Atta-Asamoah Domestic terrorism in Africa; Ontology of an old war in new trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Oshita O. Oshita Part Two Threats and incidents of domestic terrorism: Reasons, experiences and lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 A Historical overview of domestic terrorism in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi The politics of combating domestic terrorism in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Olajide Olayemi Akanji Domestic terrorism in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Anneli Botha Domestic terrorism in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Wafula Okumu Domestic terrorism in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Adams Oloo Part Three Experiences of resolving domestic terrorism in other parts of the world and lessons for Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Domestic terrorism in Asia and lessons for Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Sam Makinda Domestic terrorism in the United States and lessons for Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 William Rosenau Part Four Impact of domestic terrorism on Africa’s development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Economic impact of domestic terrorism in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Kunle Ajayi Impact of domestic terrorism on human rights in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Cephas Lumina Impact of domestic terrorism on civilian-government relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Ikenna Obi Seminar Report i Part Five Approaches and strategies for dealing with domestic terrorism in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Law enforcement approaches and strategies in dealing with domestic terrorism in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Anneli Botha Judicial and legal approaches and strategies in dealing with domestic terrorism in Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 Satyabhooshun Domah The media and domestic terrorism in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Ruby Amable List of participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 ii Institute for Security Studies About the authors Kunle Ajayi is the head of the Department of Political worked as a research offi cer at the Accra-based Centre Science at the University of Ado Ekiti and a recipient of for Security Studies and he was a member of a national an advanced research fellowship from the Council for HIV/AIDS psycho-social counselling capacity-building the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, team in Ghana. Andrews holds a Master of Arts Degree (CODESRIA). Dr Ajayi is a graduate of the University in International Aff airs from the Legon Centre for of Ado-Ekiti, and holds an MSc and a PhD from the International Aff airs (LECIA), University of Ghana, and a University of Ibadan specialising in International Bachelors degree in Socio-Economics from the University Relations and Strategic Studies. He has been a lecturer at for Development Studies in Ghana. the University of Ado-Ekiti for about thirteen years and Morten Bøås is a Senior Researcher at the Institute for has published more than thirty articles in both interna- Applied International Studies (Fafo). He has published tional and local journals. widely on many aspects of African politics and develop- Olajide O. Akanji holds a doctorate degree in Political ment, and his work has been published in journals such Science from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He as Journal of Modern African Studies, Politique Africaine, currently teaches political science in the Department Journal of Contemporary African Studies and Th ird World of Political Science of the same university. Dr Akanji Quarterly. His most recently published book is African has attended several international conferences where he Guerrillas: Raging Against the Machine (Boulder: Lynne presented academic papers. His areas of specialisation Rienner, 2007), with Kevin C. Dunn. include confl icts and security issues, human rights, citi- Anneli Botha is a senior researcher in the zenship and governance studies. His latest publication is International Crime in Africa Programme at the ISS offi ce entitled, ‘Group Rights and Confl icts in Africa: A Critical in Pretoria. She received her undergraduate education Refl ection on Ife-Modakeke, Nigeria’, in the International from the University of Pretoria and an MA in Political Journal on Minority and Group Rights, Volume 16, No 1, Studies at the Rand Afrikaans University, where con- 2009, published by Martinus Nijhoff . ducted research on Islamic extremism and international Ruby Nusienyo Amable is a broadcast journalist terrorism. Anneli is currently enrolled for a D Litt et Phil with twenty-one years experience. She is currently a degree on Religious Justifi cation of Confl ict: A Study of freelance journalist and a media consultant. Ruby was Jihad in Islam. She has widely published in the area of project offi cer for the Ghana Community Radio Network transnational terrorism as a global phenomenon. (GCRN) and advocacy offi cer for the Ghana Advocacy Satyabhooshun Domah is currently a Judge at the Steering Committee for a National Broadcasting Law, Supreme Court of Mauritius and an Appellate Judge a Rights and Voice Initiative sponsored programme. in the Republic of Seychelles. Before assuming these She has also worked with the Ghana’s premier radio positions, he has served as the Solicitor-General and station, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation, as an assistant the Director of Public Prosecutions in the Offi ce of the chief editor. Ruby is a member of the Ghana Journalist Attorney-General and Minister of Justice of Mauritius. Association (GJA), Association of Women in the Media Besides being involved as the Parliamentary Counsel (ASWIM) and the International Association of Women in the State Law Offi ce in the passage of the anti- in Radio and Television (IAWRT) and has been a regular terrorism laws in year 2002, he also participated in the presenter on media and African development. Commonwealth High Level Expert Group that prepared Andrews Atta-Asamoah is a researcher in the model legislation on terrorism law for the benefi t of Training for Peace Programme at the ISS Nairobi offi ce. Commonwealth jurisdictions. He has also participated He was a research associate and acting programmes in the Oxford Forum on Terrorism and Organized coordinator at the Confl ict Prevention, Management and Crime and made media commentaries on anti-terrorism Resolution Department (CPMRD) of the Kofi Annan legislations. He studied at the University College, International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) London, and at Aix Marseille University, France, and in Accra, Ghana. Before joining the KAIPTC, he holds a doctorate in comparative law. Seminar Report iii Domestic Terrorism in Africa: Defining, addressing and understanding its impact on human security Th omas A. Imobighe is the Director for Centre for Seeking Peace From Chaos: Humanitarian Intervention in Strategic and Development Studies (CSDS), Ambrose Alli Somalia; Security in the Horn of Africa, and Superpower University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. He holds a PhD Diplomacy in the Horn of Africa. in Strategic Studies from the University of Wales. He is a Ikenna Obi is a lecturer in the Department of History widely published author on African and international pol- & International Relations at Redeemer’s University in itics topics. His is the author of, among other publications, Ikeja, Nigeria. Terrorism and Counter-terrorism: An Africa Perspective Wafula Okumu is a senior research fellow at the ISS (with Agatha Eguavoen); Civil Society and Ethnic Confl ict offi ce in Pretoria. His research work and publications Management in Nigeria; Nigeria’s Defence and National have been on a variety of topics, including child soldiers Security Linkages; and Th e OAU (AU) and OAS in Regional in Africa, human rights in Somalia and South Africa, Confl ict Management. peace and confl icts in Africa, the African Union, and Cephas Lumina, a Zambian national, is a former humanitarian assistance in Africa. Dr Okumu is the Visiting Professor at the Raoul Wallenberg Institute of co-editor (with Paul Kaiser) of Democratic Transitions in Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, Lund University, East Africa; and co-author (with Professor Sam Makinda) Sweden and he currently teaches law at the University of of African Union: Challenges of Globalization, Security KwaZulu-Natal, in Durban, South Africa. Dr. Lumina and Governance. His other publications have appeared holds an LLB (with Merit) from the University of as book chapters and in journals such as International Zambia, LLM in International Human Rights Law from Peacekeeping, Peace Review, African Security Review, the University of Essex in the United Kingdom, PhD in Journal of International Aff airs, and Africafi les. international human rights law from Griffi th University Adams Oloo holds a PhD in Political science from in Australia, and an Advanced Diploma in International the University of Delaware, USA (2003). He is currently a Human Rights Law from Abo Akademi University in lecturer in the Department of Political Science and Public Finland. He also holds a Graduate Certifi cate in Higher Administration at the University of Nairobi. Dr Oloo has Education from Griffi th University and specialist quali- published articles on democratisation, legislative and elec- fi cations in international humanitarian law and environ- toral politics as well as devolution. His current research mental litigation and advocacy. Dr Lumina is an Advocate interests are in party politics and policy issues in Kenya as of the High Court for Zambia (called to the bar in 1986) well as security in Africa. and has over 20 years’ legal research, practice and teach- Oshita O. Oshita is the Director, Department of ing experience in several countries, including Australia, Research and Policy Analysis, Institute for Peace and South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia. Confl ict Resolution (IPCR), Abuja, Nigeria. He researched Samuel M. Makinda is Professor of Politics and and taught Philosophy in diff erent Nigerian Universities International Studies and the Chair of Security, between 1987 and 1999, until he joined the IPCR in Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism Studies at Murdoch 2000. Between October 2002 and March 2004, Dr Oshita University in Perth. He currently serves on the was at the University of Bradford, United Kingdom, as Australian Foreign Minister’s National Consultative a Chevening Scholar in Peace and Confl ict Studies. Th e Committee for International Security Issues. Professor author of Confl ict Management In Nigeria: Issues And Makinda has also taught at the Australian National Challenges is widely published in peer-reviewed journals University, the University of Western Australia, Flinders and has presented papers and facilitated workshops in University and the University of Nairobi. He also Africa, Europe and America. lectured regularly at the Australian Defence College/ Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi is the Pioneer Chair of the Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies in Weston Department of History and International Relations at Creek, ACT. He has been a research associate at the Redeemers University, where he has been researching and International Institute for Strategic Studies in London teaching confl ict resolution, African history and strategic and a guest scholar at the Brookings Institution in studies since obtaining his postgraduate degrees from the Washington, DC. He has also been a visiting Fellow at University of Ibadan. Dr Oyeniyi has published extensive- Cambridge University’s Global Security Programme, ly on African history and confl ict resolution in scholarly and a Senior Associate Member of St. Antony’s College journals, encyclopaedias, textbooks, etc. His most recent at the University of Oxford. Professor Makinda has works were featured in Toyin Falola & Amanda Warnock, conducted extensive research and published in the fol- Th e Encyclopaedia of Middle Passage, and Toyin Falola lowing areas: Transnational terrorism, arms control, and and Niyi Afolabi, Human Cost of African Displacement security in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa. and Migration. He is co-author of Th e African Union: Challenges of William Rosenau is a political scientist in the Globalization, Security and Governance; and author of Rand Corporation’s Washington Offi ce, where he iv Institute for Security Studies About the Authors specialises in the study of insurgency, terrorism, intel- He is the author of US Internal Security Assistance to ligence, and military special operations. He is also South Vietnam: Insurgency, Subversion, and Public the chairman of RAND’s Insurgency Board. He holds Order and RAND publications such as ‘Corporations a PhD in War Studies from King’s College, London. and Counterinsurgency;’ ‘From the Ashes? Th e Phoenix Dr Rosenau has served in the US State Department’s Program and Contemporary Counterinsurgency;’ counterterrorism offi ce; on the US Department of Subversion and Insurgency; Confronting the Defense Commission on the Roles and Missions of the ‘Enemy Within’: Security Intelligence, Police, and Armed Forces (CORM); and in the offi ce of the US as- Counterterrorism in Four Democracies; Aum Shinrikyo, sistant secretary of defense for special operations and Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor: Implications of low-intensity confl ict. He is also an adjunct professor Th ree Case Studies for Combating Nuclear Terrorism; and in Georgetown University’s Security Studies program. Trends in Outside Support to Insurgent Movements. Seminar Report v