\\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 1 30-MAR-12 9:08 DOES ‘SORRY’ INCRIMINATE? EVIDENCE, HARM AND THE PROTECTION OF APOLOGY Jeffrey S. Helmreich* Apology has proven a dramatically effective means of resolving conflict and preventing litigation. Still, many injurers withhold apolo- gies because they have long been used as evidence of liability. Recently, a majority of states in the United States have passed “Apology Laws” designed to shield apologies from evidentiary use. However, most of the new laws protect only expressions of benevolence and sympathy, like “I feel bad about what happened to you.” They do not protect apologies that include expressions of remorse or self-criticism, such as “I should have prevented it.” These laws thereby reinforce a prevailing legal con- strual of apologies as partial proof of liability. This Article argues that the tendency to interpret apologies as incriminating, a tendency en- trenched in evidence law and reinforced by the new state measures, mis- reads apologetic discourse in a crucial way. Drawing on developments in ethical theory, it argues that full, self-critical apologies do not imply culpability or liability because they are equally appropriate for blame- less, non-negligent injurers. Neither the statement nor the act of an apology is probative of liability, and their admission has been premised on a mistake. This Article closes with a proposed means of protecting apologies from evidentiary use, modeled on Rule 409 of the Federal Rules of Evidence. INTRODUCTION................................................. 568 R I. THE BACKGROUND: EVIDENCE, CHILL, AND THE POWER OF APOLOGY ........................................... 571 R A. Apologies as Evidence .............................. 571 R B. Chilling Effect on Apologies ........................ 573 R C. Apologies Prevent Long Legal Battles ............... 574 R * Graduate Research Fellow, Program on Negotiation, Harvard Law School, and Ph.D. Candidate, philosophy, University of California, Los Angeles. This Article was first presented at the Law and Humanities Junior Scholar Workshop at the University of Southern California, June 6–7, 2011. I am grateful to Greg Keating, Norm Spaulding and Gary Watson for gener- ous and insightful commentary, and to all the conference participants, notably Amy Adler, Ariela Gross, Sanford Levinson, Hillary Schor, Sy Spillerman, and Nomi Stolzenberg. Thanks also to Scott Altman, Esther Friedman, Barbara Herman, Pamela Hieronymi, Jennifer Mnookin, Herb Morris, and especially Seana Shiffrin for very helpful discussion and feedback, and to the editors of the Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy, notably Matthew Bohenek, James M.C. McHale, and Jocelyn Krieger. 567 \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 2 30-MAR-12 9:08 568 CORNELL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PUBLIC POLICY [Vol. 21:567 D. The Apology Laws ................................. 575 R 1. Laws Protecting Partial Apologies............... 576 R 2. Laws Protecting Full Apologies................. 578 R II. DO “FULL” APOLOGIES INCRIMINATE? ................... 579 R A. “Real,” or Self-Critical, Apologies are Still Admissible ......................................... 579 R B. Self-Criticism is Not Incriminating .................. 581 R 1. Moral Agents are Deeply Invested in Not Harming Others................................ 585 R 2. Investment Against Harm Grounds Self-Criticism .................................. 586 R III. OBJECTIONS ............................................ 589 R A. Ought Implies Can and Substantive Virtue Theory ... 589 R B. Too High a Moral Standard? ....................... 592 R C. Third Parties ...................................... 594 R IV. THE WAY FORWARD.................................... 595 R A. Apology as Non-Speech Evidence ................... 595 R B. Reparatory Steps and Federal Rule of Evidence 409 . 598 R C. Toward a Solution ................................. 602 R 1. Protecting Factual Incrimination ................ 603 R 2. Prompting Insincere Apologies.................. 604 R 3. Over-Discouraging Lawsuits .................... 606 R CONCLUSION................................................... 608 R INTRODUCTION Recent years have seen an explosion in public examples of the power of apologies to resolve conflicts and avoid litigation.1 Legal prac- tice has been slow to respond.2 Until recently, apologies were routinely admitted as evidence to prove liability, which tended to discourage injurers from apologizing to 1 See, e.g., AARON J. LAZARE, ON APOLOGY 5–11 (2005) (finding public apologies help resolve conflict); Richard C. Boothman et al., A Better Approach to Medical Malpractice Claims? The University of Michigan Experience, 2 J. HEALTH & LIFE SCI. L. 125, 143 (2009) (disclosing the results of a study by the University of Michigan Health System which found that honest disclosure reduces the instance of malpractice suits by more than 200%); Lucinda Jesson & Peter B. Knapp, My Lawyer Told Me to Say I’m Sorry: Lawyers, Doctors, and Medical Apologies, 35 WM. MITCHELL L. REV. 2 (2009) (finding less dramatic results in Colo- rado hospitals and national insurance companies); Kevin Sack, Doctors Say I’m Sorry Before ‘See You in Court,’ N.Y. TIMES, May 18, 2008, at A1; see also MICHAEL S. WOODS &JASON I. STARR, HEALING WORDS: THE POWER OF APOLOGY IN MEDICINE (2007) (suggesting that the chance of being sued was reduced by half when doctors apologize and disclose details of error). 2 See, e.g., Boothman et al., supra note 1, at 132 (discussing senators failing to pass legislation in 2005 endorsing non-litigation resolution of medical malpractice claims). \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 3 30-MAR-12 9:08 2012] DOES ‘SORRY’ INCRIMINATE? 569 their victims.3 In the past two decades, however, a new wave of legisla- tion designed to counter this evidentiary disincentive has swept the United States and other countries.4 Beginning in 1986, a growing num- ber of states have adopted what have been called “apology laws”—pro- tective measures designed to encourage injurers to apologize by expressly ensuring that at least some types of apologies cannot be used against them in litigation.5 Most of these measures, nevertheless, stop short of protecting full apologies.6 In particular, they deny protection to expressions of remorse, guilt, and self-criticism, such as “I’m sorry I let that happen to you.”7 They protect only expressions of good will, such as sympathy (“I’m sorry you’re suffering”) and benevolence (“I want to help you recover”).8 If one apologizes solely by expressing these sorts of neutral sentiments, the new state measures provide that these words will not be used in court to prove liability.9 If, on the other hand, one speaks self-critically to the victims of one’s accidental harms (“I should have found a way to stop this,” or “I’m so sorry I didn’t do a better job of preventing it”) the utterances enjoy no special protection.10 That is, in part, because most of the laws are tailored not only to protect apologizers, but to preserve pro- bative evidence of liability.11 The new laws therefore deny protection to self-critical expressions such as “It was my fault,” or “I should not have done that.”12 In withholding protection from these self-critical remarks, the new reforms suggest that such statements are probative of liability, a reading they share with prior evidentiary practice.13 This interpretation takes sides in a larger debate about the meaning and role of self-critical apolo- 3 See infra notes 28–32. 4 See Jesson & Knapp, supra note 1, at 1430–32 (showing that after Massachusetts enacted an apology statute, other jurisdictions followed suit); Jonathan R. Cohen, Legislating Apology: The Pros and Cons, 70 U. CIN. L. REV. 819, 869–70 (2002) (discussing the impor- tance of apology in Japan, New Zealand, and China). 5 See, e.g., ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 12-2605 (2005); CONN. GEN. STAT. ANN. § 52- 184d (2010); FLA. STAT. § 90.4026 (2010); GA. CODE ANN. § 24-3-37.1 (2010); IOWA CODE § 622.31 (2010); VT. STAT. ANN. TIT. 12 § 1912 (2010); see also Cohen, supra note 4 (sum- marizing the emergence of these laws). For an important critical evaluation of the state mea- sures, see Lee Taft, The Commodification of Apology, 109 YALE L.J. 1135 (2000). 6 See Jesson & Knapp, supra note 1, at 1425–26 (discussing what types of apologies are admissible). 7 See, e.g., Cohen, supra note 4, at 819–20. 8 Id. 9 See, e.g., CONN. GEN. STAT. ANN. § 52-184d (1958). 10 See, e.g., Cohen, supra note 4, at 819–20. 11 See id. at 824–25. 12 See id. 13 See Jesson & Knapp, supra note 1, at 1448 (noting lawyer concerns that disclosure “will make a bad decision worse”). \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 4 30-MAR-12 9:08 570 CORNELL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PUBLIC POLICY [Vol. 21:567 gies.14 Can we sincerely express remorse, contrition and self-criticism if we believe we did nothing wrong? The current practice in evidence law, and especially the bulk of the new “apology laws,” suggests that doing so would misrepresent us as culpable or liable. The suggestion is that ex- pressing guilt, remorse or self-criticism implies that one acted with fault. Here I argue that such a reading misunderstands apologies and re- gret for blameless harm. Drawing on developments in moral theory, I will attempt to show that apologies and related expressions of guilt, re- morse and self-criticism, such as “I should never have let that happen,” do not imply admissions of liability largely because they do not imply admissions of fault. They do not even imply that anything wrong was done at all. This is true for two reasons. First, a guilty or self-critical stance is appropriately directed even at one’s inadvertent, non-negligent inflictions of harm. From a moral point of view, that is an appropriate reaction in such cases, or so I will argue. Therefore, self-critical apolo- gies do not imply an admission of liability, and both traditional legal practice and the new state reforms err in treating them as such. Second, apologizing is an appropriate moral remedy even for blameless harms. There are, in other words, sound moral reasons to apologize to those one harms blamelessly, which resemble the reasons to offer them aid or com- pensation. Such offers are protected by the Federal Rules of Evidence and analogous state rules.15 For the same reasons I will argue that apolo- gies should enjoy protection. I will conclude with a simple suggestion for how such protection can be incorporated into legal practice, thereby improving upon the recent legislative efforts to protect and encourage apologies. This Article proceeds in four Parts. Part I analyzes the status of apologies as evidence under current legal practice and the new state re- forms known as “apology laws.” Part II constitutes the critique of the state measures and, consequently, the legal practice that they leave in place. First, it exposes their failure to protect self-critical expressions, such as “I regret what I allowed to happen,” or “I should have done better,” which reflects a reading of such statements as partial admissions of liability. Second, I argue that this reading is mistaken, because ex- pressing self-criticism and even guilt does not imply actual guilt or cul- pability. Rather, such expressions reflect the speaker’s sense of having misused her efforts to avoid something, namely harming others, which moral agents are deeply invested in avoiding. Part III treats two notable objections to these arguments. Finally, Part IV proposes that legislative protection of apologies be expanded beyond the new state measures to 14 See id. at 1451 (comparing choice between erring on the side of caution and making a more sincere apology). 15 See, e.g., IOWA CODE ANN. § 622.31 (1946). \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 5 30-MAR-12 9:08 2012] DOES ‘SORRY’ INCRIMINATE? 571 include self-critical remarks, along with nonverbal acts of apology other- wise admissible as circumstantial evidence. The proposal is modeled on Rule 409 of the Federal Rules of Evidence and its state versions. I. THE BACKGROUND: EVIDENCE, CHILL, AND THE POWER OF APOLOGY A. Apologies as Evidence Apologies have long been admitted to prove evidence of negligence liability.16 The term “apologies” here refers to statements uttered by in- jurers or wrongdoers to their victims with the intention that they be un- derstood as apologies, or at least as expressions of remorse or regret over something the speaker did. Typically these statements include the phrase “I’m sorry,” as in “I’m sorry I injured you.” But they need not involve such familiar locutions; statements such as “I’ve been meaning to tell you how awful I feel about what I did to you” could be just as plausibly read as expressions of regret or remorse, and may even be understood as apologies, as well. They, too, qualify as apologies for purposes of this Article. Indeed, the term “apology” here is used as broadly as possible without stretching common usage. Apologies on even the broadest possible understanding tend to oc- cur in recognizable contexts. Specifically, they tend to be uttered by the apologizer to the apologizee. Often the utterance takes place out of court, which could make them hearsay. Generally, hearsay statements cannot be admitted to support civil or criminal liability.17 If so, then perhaps apologies need not be protected from evidentiary use because they are inadmissible. Apologies, however, tend to be admitted as a type of statement that lies outside the scope of the hearsay rule, known as an “admission by party-opponent.”18 By “admission,” evidentiary rules re- fer not to outright confessions, but to any statement which is “inconsis- tent with the party’s position at trial, relevant to the substantive issues in the case, and offered against the party.”19 For example, a physician ac- cused of negligently performing an operation without taking reasonable care to obtain full consent may have said to one of his subordinates, “I will not be reading any more consent forms today.” That statement, to- gether with other evidence (about other days, for example), could be used to establish that the physician did not read a form the patient had modified. The admission by itself does not prove the doctor liable, as it 16 See Cohen, supra note 4, at 819 (discussing the beginning of excluding apologies from evidence in the late 1990s). 17 See FED. R. EVID. 802 and analogous state rules. 18 See FED. R. EVID. 801(d)(2) and analogous state rules. 19 See CHARLES TILFORD MCCORMICK, MCCORMICK ON EVIDENCE § 254 (Kenneth S. Broun ed., 6th ed., 2006). \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 6 30-MAR-12 9:08 572 CORNELL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PUBLIC POLICY [Vol. 21:567 does not assert his liability outright, but it admits a fact that could help establish, for example, that he did not take appropriate steps to remain within the scope of the patient’s consent. The “admission by party-oppo- nent” limit on the hearsay rule is meant to include statements like this one, which would be admissible as testimony, but which a party should not need to cross-examine or swear in because they are the party’s own statements. Hence they are admitted despite having been uttered out of court. Apologies, though perhaps also admissible on other grounds, tend to be construed as statements that a party has made which are inconsistent with the party’s claims at trial.20 Relying on this reading of apologies, courts have allowed into evidence out-of-court utterances by doctors to the patients they harmed, such as “this is a terrible thing I have done . . . I’m sorry”21 or “I’m sorry, [I] made a mistake and . . . it never happened before.”22 Similarly, a Starbucks manager’s apology to a cus- tomer, after apparently watching her get burned by spilled coffee, was admitted to prove the store’s possible negligence.23 A Colorado doctor’s alleged post-operative statement to a patient’s son that he was “sorry about [his] father’s situation” was deemed admissible and a concession of fault.24 While courts in these and other cases treat apologies as admissible to prove liability, that hardly shows they are ever sufficient to do so. One court reasoned that apologies could be decisive evidence of liabil- ity,25 but most have found only that they can contribute to a finding of negligence together with further evidence.26 In fact, in cases where apol- ogies were offered as the sole evidence of liability, without an accompa- nying admission of negligent conduct, courts have mostly ruled that the evidence is insufficient to prove liability.27 20 See id. 21 Greenwood v. Harris, 362 P.2d 85, 88 (Okla. 1961). 22 Senesac v. Assoc. in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 449 A.2d 900, 903 (Vt. 1982). 23 Becton v. Starbucks Corp., 491 F. Supp. 2d 737, 741, 747 (S.D. Ohio 2007) (citing FED. R. EVID. 801(d)(2) on admissions of party opponents); see also Wickoff v. James, 324 P.2d 661 (Cal. App. Ct. 1958) (holding that the statement, “I sure made a mess of things” could ground juror’s inference of negligence); Woods v. Zeluff, 158 P.3d 552 (Ut. App. Ct. 2007) (stating he “missed something” and “shouldn’t have done” it admissible to prove negligence). 24 Fognani v. Young, 115 P.3d 1268, 1270 (Colo. 2005). 25 Id. at 1267–68. 26 See supra notes 21–24. 27 See, e.g., Sutton v. Calhoun, 593 F.2d 127 (10th Cir. 1979); Cobbs v. Grant, 502 P.2d 1 (Cal. 1972); Phinney v. Vinson, 605 A.2d 849 (Vt. 1992). \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 7 30-MAR-12 9:08 2012] DOES ‘SORRY’ INCRIMINATE? 573 B. Chilling Effect on Apologies Though hardly devastating to the apologizer’s case, the tendency to admit apologies into evidence seems to deter the practice of apologizing. A survey of physicians revealed that the overwhelming majority want to apologize to patients whom they have harmed but refrain from doing so out of fear their contrition will be used against them in civil trials.28 Their reluctance is supported by advice they receive from legal and ethi- cal consultants who serve the hospitals that employ them and their insur- ers.29 Physicians have long been encouraged not to apologize, so as to avoid contributing to incurring their own liability judgments.30 The risk of adverse evidentiary use is apparently sufficient to advise, at the very least, caution in speaking to the victim of one’s injury.31 One reason, at least in the medical context, is the fear that insurance companies will be less likely to extend coverage to clients who adversely affect their chances of prevailing in a lawsuit, even if only to the extent of contribut- ing slightly to the available evidence against them.32 Apart from insur- ance coverage, the mere fact that an apology is usable as evidence seems to lead some legal advisors to discourage them on the grounds that con- tributing in any way to adverse litigation, such as giving a potential plaintiff any information that would be valuable in a lawsuit, encourages such lawsuits or fails to discourage them.33 In addition, the context of choosing one’s words to avoid lawsuits is in itself incompatible with the concessionary, open, self-deprecating mindset characteristic of the apolo- getic stance.34 Once the possibility of evidence is considered, the apolo- 28 Thomas H. Gallagher et al., Patients’ and Physicians’ Attitudes Regarding the Disclo- sure of Medical Errors, 289 JAMA 1001, 1005 (2003). 29 See, e.g., Marthadra J. Beckworth, Admissibility of Statements of Condolence or Apol- ogy, PLICO NEWS (Physicians Liab. Ins. Co., Oklahoma City, Okla.), Fourth Quarter, 2006 (noting that there “is a fine line between an expression of condolence and an admission”), available at http://www.plicook.com/sites/plico/uploads/images/4Q06%20newsletter.pdf; Lola Butcher, Lawyers Say ‘Sorry’ May Sink You in Court, THE PHYSICIAN EXEC. 20–23 Mar./April 2006; see also Kevin Quinley, ‘Sorry Works’—or Does It? 25 MED. MAL. L. & STRATEGY 3 (Dec. 2007) (warning practitioners of the insurance coverage risks in “so-called apology programs”). 30 See, e.g., Anna C. Mastroianni et al., The Flaws In State ‘Apology’ And ‘Disclosure’ Laws Dilute Their Intended Impact On Malpractice Suits, 29 HEALTH AFF. 9 (Project HOPE, Bethesda, Md.) September, 2010 at 1611, 1612. 31 See, e.g., supra notes 28–30. 32 See, e.g., Kevin B. O’Reilly, “I’m Sorry”: Why is That So Hard for Doctors to Say? AM. MED. NEWS, Feb. 1, 2010, available at http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2010/02/01/ prsa0201.htm (quoting Steven I. Kern, senior partner at Kern Augustine Conroy & Schoppmann, specializing in physician clients: “If [the apology] becomes an admission that’s usable in a malpractice case, it could affect the ability to defend the case”). 33 See, e.g., Joel S. Weissman et al., Error Reporting and Disclosure Systems: Views from Hospital Leaders, 293 JAMA 1359, 1359–66 (2005) (quoting a lawyer saying, “Why give the enemy even one tiny gram of TNT if I could give them none?”). 34 See, e.g., Gallagher et al., supra note 28. \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 8 30-MAR-12 9:08 574 CORNELL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PUBLIC POLICY [Vol. 21:567 getic context is constrained, if not corrupted. In sum, the available data suggests that admitting apologies into evidence at all discourages them to a degree that is disproportionate to their actual probative value. C. Apologies Prevent Long Legal Battles Yet just as there is reason to think evidentiary admissibility discour- ages apology, separate evidence suggests that apologizing would be le- gally advantageous if people could overcome their fear of playing into their opposing litigants’ hands. Various studies suggest that apologies can prevent lawsuits from being filed altogether, and increase the likeli- hood and speed of settlement for those that do arise. For example, one British study found that many plaintiffs who sued their doctors said they would not have done so had they received an apology and an explanation for their injury.35 The University of Michigan Health Service (UMHS) reported that its per case payments decreased by 47% and the settlement time dropped from twenty to six months since the introduction of the 2001 “Apology and Disclosure Program,” which required that healthcare professionals apologize to patients who complained of being injured while under the UMHS care.36 Similar, though slightly less dramatic, results were found at the University of Colorado Medical Center.37 Fur- thermore, Jennifer Robbenholt surveyed a large number of participants asked to consider themselves in a set of hypothetical “simulated cases,” varying only by whether an apology was offered and its type (remorseful, merely sympathetic, full or partial).38 She found that an overwhelming majority (73%) were inclined to accept a settlement offer when a “full apology” was offered, as compared with only half the participants when there was no apology involved.39 The empirical research is still at an early stage. It is small, and, except for the Michigan study and a handful of others, it relies heavily on reactions to hypothetical scenarios. It also does not shed much light on exactly what about an apology causes people to respond more positively to settlement offers and even to refrain from suing in the first place. But it does seem to suggest that apologies are mutually beneficial to injurer 35 Francis H. Miller, Medical Malpractice Litigation: Do the British Have a Better Rem- edy?, 11 AM. J. L. & MED. 433, 434–35 (1986) (commenting on the much greater role of apology and significantly lower incidence of malpractice suits in England than in the U.S.); Charles Vincent et al., Why Do People Sue Doctors? A Study of Patients and Relatives Taking Legal Action, 343 THE LANCET 1609, 1612 (1994) (reporting a British study that found 37% of families and patients bringing suit may not have done so had there been a full explanation and apology). 36 See, e.g., Boothman, et al, supra note 1, at 125. 37 See Jesson & Knapp, supra note 1. 38 See Jennifer K. Robbenholt, Apologies and Legal Settlement: An Empirical Examina- tion, 102 MICH. L. REV. 460 (2003). 39 Id. at 486. \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 9 30-MAR-12 9:08 2012] DOES ‘SORRY’ INCRIMINATE? 575 and victim, inspiring victims to reconcile and sparing injurers the stan- dard legal price of the harm they wrought. That, together with the moral benefits of apologizing, counts in favor of removing any evidentiary deterrent. D. The Apology Laws To that end, a growing number of states have sought to encourage apologies by explicitly denying their admissibility as evidence; the cur- rent wave of apology legislation, which has already swept through thirty- seven states and inspired similar versions in Canada and Australia, was reportedly set off in part by a single person’s adverse experience.40 For- mer Massachusetts state senator William L. Saltonstall prevailed upon his successor, Robert C. Buell, to draft the first state apology law in 1986. Some years after Saltonstall’s daughter was killed in a car acci- dent, the offending driver had never apologized or expressed regret.41 Senator Saltonstall discovered that the driver had said he wanted to apol- ogize but “dared not,” fearing that it would be used against him as tort evidence.42 It was this chilling effect of evidence law that the former state senator and his successor sought to reverse with the new legislation.43 Indeed, the dozens of state “apology laws” passed in the last two decades were drafted in part to encourage apologies by expressly deny- ing, in a highly publicized way, the admissibility of these apologies to prove liability.44 Their motivation, in other words, is in part psychologi- cal: legislators meant the new measures to cause injurers to feel freer to apologize to their victims.45 For that reason the statutes should not be read as necessarily adding substantively to existing evidence law. Some clearly do, protecting even factually incriminating apologies in certain 40 Taft, supra note 5, at 1151. 41 Id. 42 Id. 43 Id. 44 William K. Bartels, The Stormy Seas Of Apologies: California Evidence Code Section 1160 Provides A Safe Harbor For Apologies Made After Accidents, 28 W. ST. U.L. REV. 141, 143 (2001). Thus the new law was intended to stem lawsuits by encouraging apologies. The Massachusetts law was also apparently introduced to encourage apologies, though not necessa- rily with the primary aim of reducing lawsuits. See Taft, supra note 5, at 1151. Other states expressly include these sorts of motivations in their codification of apology laws. For exam- ple, both Georgia and South Carolina preface their laws with the following observation: “The General Assembly finds that conduct, statements, or activity constituting voluntary offers of assistance or expressions of benevolence, regret, mistake, error, sympathy, or apology between or among parties or potential parties to a civil action should be encouraged and should not be considered an admission of liability.” O.C.G.A. § 24-3-37.1 (2010); S.C. CODE ANN § 19-1- 190 (2010). 45 See, e.g., Taft, supra note 5, at 1151. \\jciprod01\productn\C\CJP\21-3\CJP304.txt unknown Seq: 10 30-MAR-12 9:08 576 CORNELL JOURNAL OF LAW AND PUBLIC POLICY [Vol. 21:567 contexts, as we will see.46 Many, however, deny admissibility only to statements that were arguably inadmissible already.47 Even without the legislative protection, for example, a defendant could exclude certain apologetic statements, such as “I’m sorry you’re in pain,” by showing that the remark admits no point confirming or undermining a party’s po- sition at trial, which would disqualify it as an “admission” under the exceptions to the hearsay rule. Alternatively, he might show that the prejudicial impact of admitting a statement, such as “I’m sick about what I did to you. It was horrible!,” substantially outweighs its probative value and therefore warrants exclusion under Rule 403 of the Federal Rules of Evidence and analogous state rules.48 Many of the legislative measures arguably add nothing to these grounds for exclusion.49 Recall, however, that Senator Saltonstall was moved by the reported belief, on the part of an injurious driver, that apologizing would incriminate him.50 It was that widespread belief, or versions of it, that he and those who drafted the first “apology law” hoped to change, not necessarily the pos- sible warrants for the belief. To that end, legislation that expressly pro- tects apologetic remarks does more than restrict evidence at trial, if it does that at all. It loudly reassures would-be injurers, or at least their legal advisors, not to mention the general public, that apologizing need not expose them legally. 1. Laws Protecting Partial Apologies Most of the apology laws do not go all the way to denying the ad- missibility of apologies, per se, as they preserve the admissibility of apologies that admit fault. Instead, they explicitly protect only “partial” apologies. A partial apology is one that excludes what are thought to be essential features of apologies, such as expressions of regret or remorse. For example, saying “I’m sorry about what happened to you” does not express the speaker’s regret over her own causal role in the event. Of the laws that protect partial apologies, some specify outright that they deny protection to “admissions of fault,” while others simply de- scribe the apologies they protect in such terms as to make clear they could not involve statements admitting fault. Typical of the former group is Florida’s statute: 46 See infra Part I.D.2. 47 See, e.g.,FLA. STAT. § 90.4026 (2010) (admitting apologies that simply express sym- pathy, benevolence or the like, even where such expression does not bolster or undermine any claim relevant to either party’s position at trial, and so would not qualify as “admissions” for purposes of exceptions to the hearsay rule); IOWA CODE § 622.31 (2010) (same). See also infra notes 51–52 and accompanying text. 48 See, e.g., FED. R. EVID. 403. 49 See infra Part I.D.2. 50 See Taft, supra note 5, at 1151.