Disruptive Emerging Transportation Technologies Technical Committee on Connected and Automated Vehicles Impacts EDITED BY Heng Wei, Ph.D., P.E. Yinhai Wang, Ph.D., P.E. Jianming Ma, Ph.D, P.E. Disruptive Emerging Transportation Technologies Other Titles of Interest Engineering for Sustainable Communities: Principles and Practices, edited by William E. Kelly, Barbara Luke, and Richard N. Wright. (ASCE/Committee on Sustainability 2017). This book defines and outlines sustainable engineering methods for real-world engineering projects. (ISBN 978-0-7844-1481-1) Permeable Pavements, by the Permeable Pavements Task Committee; edited by Bethany Eisenberg, Kelly Collins Lindow, and David R. Smith. (ASCE/ EWRI 2015). This book provides the most current guidance available for the design, construction, and maintenance of permeable pavement systems that provide transportation surfaces and manage stormwater and urban runoff. (978-0-7844-1378-4) Failure to Act: The Economic Impact of Current Investment Trends in Surface Transportation Infrastructure, by the American Society of Civil Engineers. (ASCE 2011). This Failure to Act report provides an objective analysis of the economic implications of underinvestment in U.S. infrastructure related to surface transportation, including highways, bridges, railroads, and transit systems. (978-0-7844-7880-6) Airfield Safety and Capacity Improvements: Case Studies on Successful Projects, edited by Geoffrey S. Baskir and Edward L. Gervais. (ASCE/T&DI 2012). This technical report presents six case studies focused on the planning, engineering, and management of major construction projects at active airports. (ISBN 978-0-7844-1256-5) Biodiesel Production: Technologies, Challenges, and Future Prospects, R. D. Tyagi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Song Yan, and Xiaolei Zhang. (ASCE/ EWRI 2019). This book provides in-depth information on fundamentals, approaches, technologies, source materials and associated socio-economic and political impacts of biodiesel production. (ISBN 978-0-7844-1534-4) Impacts of Future Weather and Climate Extremes on United States Infrastructure, by the Task Committee on Future Weather and Climate Extremes; edited by Mari R. Tye and Jason P. Giovannettone. (ASCE/Committee on Adaptation to a Changing Climate 2021). This report provides prioritization frameworks in accommodating projected future weather and climate extremes for policy makers and engineers involved in infrastructure planning and design. (978-0-7844-1586-3) Disruptive Emerging Transportation Technologies Prepared by the Technical Committee on Connected and Automated Vehicles (CAV) Impacts of the Transportation & Development Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers Edited by Heng Wei, Ph.D., P.E. Yinhai Wang, Ph.D., P.E. Jianming Ma, Ph.D., P.E. Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Transportation & Development Institute (American Society of Civil Engineers). Connected and Automated Vehicles Impacts Committee, author. | Wei, Heng (Civil engineer), editor. | Wang, Yinhai, editor. | Ma, Jianming (Engineer), editor. Title: Disruptive emerging transportation technologies / prepared by the Technical Committee on Connected and Automated Vehicles (CAV) Impacts of the Transportation & Development Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers ; editors, Heng Wei, Yinhai Wang, Jianming Ma. Description: Reston, Virginia : American Society of Civil Engineers, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This title provides a forward-looking overview of the relevant 4IR technologies and their potential impacts on the future disruptive emerging transportation”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2021055813 | ISBN 9780784415986 (paperback) | ISBN 9780784483909 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Transportation--Technological innovations. | Traffic engineering-- Technological innovations. | Industry 4.0. Classification: LCC TA1145 .T725 2022 | DDC 629.04--dc23/eng/20211220 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021055813 Published by American Society of Civil Engineers 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4382 www.asce.org/bookstore | ascelibrary.org Any statements expressed in these materials are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of ASCE, which takes no responsibility for any statement made herein. No reference made in this publication to any specific method, product, process, or service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof by ASCE. 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ISBN 978-0-7844-1598-6 (print) ISBN 978-0-7844-8390-9 (PDF) ISBN 978-0-7844-8419-7 (ePub) Manufactured in the United States of America. 27 26 25 24 23 22 1 2 3 4 5 Contents List of Chapter Authors ..........................................................................................................xi Preface .......................................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................xix Chapter 1 Emerging Technologies Impacting the Future of Transportation ...........................................................................1 Paul A. Avery, Ken Yang, Ming Tang 1.1 Transportation Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning .................1 1.1.1 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Techniques for Transportation Application ....................................1 1.1.2 Introduction to Transportation Systems Management and Operation ....................................................................................................4 1.1.3 Use Cases for Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Transportation ......................................................................................5 1.1.4 Conclusions of Section 1.1 ..................................................................14 1.2 Edge Computing, Fog Computing, and Cloud Computing Technologies .........................................................................................................15 1.2.1 The Demand on the Existing Transportation Infrastructure ..........................................................................................16 1.2.2 Cloud Computing as an Alternative Solution ..............................17 1.2.3 Demand of Edge Computing .............................................................17 1.2.4 Overview of Edge Computing Technologies ..............................18 1.2.5 Cloudlet.....................................................................................................18 1.2.6 Mobile Edge Computing ....................................................................19 1.2.7 “Fog” Computing...................................................................................19 1.2.8 Development of Edge Computing and Associated Technologies ...........................................................................................21 1.2.9 Transportation Scenarios of Applying Edge Computing ........23 1.2.10 Building Decentralized ITS Infrastructure ....................................24 1.2.11 Impact of Edge Computing on Connected and Automated Vehicle Roadside Infrastructure Migration ...........25 1.2.12 Summary of Section 1.2 ......................................................................25 1.3 Fifth-Generation Innovative Communications Technology ................27 1.3.1 Review of 5G Data Services ................................................................28 1.3.2 Impact of 5G Data Services on Smart Transportation Infrastructure Enhancement .............................................................30 v vi COnTEnTS 1.3.3 Impacts of 5G Data Services on Connected and Automated Vehicle Migration ...........................................................31 1.3.4 Impact of Continuous Evolution on 5G Standards ....................32 1.3.5 Testing and Demonstration of 5G Cellular V2X ..........................33 1.3.6 Challenges in the United States with 5G Cellular V2X .............33 1.3.7 Summary of Section 1.3 ......................................................................34 1.4 Design and Development of Virtual Reality–Based Driving Simulation ..............................................................................................................35 1.4.1 Virtual Reality ..........................................................................................35 1.4.2 Simulation of the Real World .............................................................36 1.4.3 Interactivity and Interface ..................................................................37 1.4.4 Hardware ..................................................................................................37 1.4.5 Software and Scenario Creation ......................................................39 1.4.6 Demonstrated Study of Urban Mobility in Driving Simulation ................................................................................................42 1.4.7 Conclusion and Challenges to Section 1.4 ...................................45 1.5 Applied Internet of Things Technologies in Transportation ................46 1.5.1 Overviewing of Internet of Things Technologies ......................46 1.5.2 IoTs Communication Technologies and Protocols ....................47 1.5.3 Standardization Migration of Internet of Things Technologies ...........................................................................................48 1.5.4 Transportation Scenarios of Applying Internet of Things ......54 1.5.5 Conclusion of Section 1.5 ...................................................................56 References ........................................................................................................................56 Chapter 2 Surface Transportation Automation .....................................63 Heng Wei, Paul A. Avery, Hao Liu, Gaurav Kashyap, Jianming Ma 2.1 Concepts of Vehicles in Compliance with Society of Automobile Engineers Automation Levels ................................................63 2.1.1 Society of Automobile Engineers Automation Levels .............63 2.1.2 Connected Vehicle ................................................................................65 2.1.3 Autonomous Vehicle ............................................................................67 2.1.4 Cooperative Vehicles with Automation ........................................68 2.1.5 Autonomous Shuttle ............................................................................69 2.2 Key Supportive Systems of Connected Vehicles ......................................77 2.2.1 Safety Systems ........................................................................................77 2.2.2 Mobility Systems ....................................................................................79 2.2.3 Environment Systems ..........................................................................82 2.3 Key Design Elements of Autonomous Vehicles ........................................83 2.3.1 Perception ................................................................................................84 2.3.2 navigation ................................................................................................85 2.3.3 Localization .............................................................................................86 2.3.4 Command and Control ........................................................................86 2.3.5 Health Monitoring .................................................................................86 2.3.6 Behavior Architecture ..........................................................................86 COnTEnTS vii 2.3.7 World Model ............................................................................................87 2.3.8 Advantages of Lower Levels of Automated Driving .................87 2.4 Distributed Ledger Technologies for Connected and Autonomous Vehicle Systems ........................................................................89 2.4.1 An Introduction to Distributed Ledger Technology .................91 2.4.2 Use of Distributed Ledger Technology in Transportation ......92 2.5 Application of Transportation Automation Technologies ....................92 2.5.1 Connected and Automated Vehicle Applications .....................92 2.5.2 Mobility Smart Contracts....................................................................94 2.5.3 Cooperative Driving Automation ....................................................95 2.5.4 Security Considerations ......................................................................96 2.6 Driving Automation Definition and Autonomous Vehicle Laws ........97 2.7 Summary ................................................................................................................99 References ......................................................................................................................100 Chapter 3 Autonomous Vehicle Testing ................................................105 Jonathan Corey, Heng Wei 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................105 3.2 Autonomous Vehicle Technology Testing ................................................106 3.3 Mechanical Testing ...........................................................................................107 3.3.1 Safety Systems ......................................................................................108 3.3.2 Engine and Drivetrain ........................................................................109 3.4 Software and Cyber Security Data Testing ...............................................109 3.4.1 Driving Model .......................................................................................110 3.4.2 Sensor Interfaces .................................................................................112 3.4.3 Cybersecurity ........................................................................................112 3.4.4 Cyber Data Testing ..............................................................................113 3.4.5 System of Software Systems Testing ............................................114 3.5 Combined System Testing .............................................................................115 3.6 Complete Vehicle Testing ...............................................................................116 3.7 System of Systems Testing ..............................................................................117 3.8 Version Testing ....................................................................................................117 3.9 Simulated versus Real-World Testing .........................................................118 3.10 Analysis Frameworks ........................................................................................119 3.11 Software Simulation .........................................................................................119 3.11.1 Design Simulation ...............................................................................120 3.11.2 Software in the Loop Simulation ...................................................120 3.11.3 Hardware in the Loop Simulation .................................................121 3.11.4 Driving Simulator ................................................................................121 3.11.5 Environment Simulation ...................................................................122 3.11.6 Virtual Reality–Based Simulation...................................................123 3.12 DOT-Approved AV Proving Grounds ..........................................................123 3.13 Testing Facilities .................................................................................................125 3.13.1 MCity (Michigan) ..................................................................................125 3.13.2 Transportation Research Center (Ohio) .......................................126 viii COnTEnTS 3.13.3 Area X.O (Ottawa, Canada) ...............................................................126 3.13.4 GoMentum Station (California) .......................................................126 3.13.5 Automated Driving Systems for Rural America (Iowa) ...........127 3.14 Upcoming Testing Facilities ...........................................................................129 3.14.1 SunTrax (Florida)...................................................................................129 3.14.2 Curiosity Lab (Georgia) ......................................................................129 3.15 Current Deployments ......................................................................................130 3.16 Impact of Policies on AV Testing ..................................................................131 3.17 Critical AV Testing Issues for Future Deployment ..................................132 3.18 Summary ..............................................................................................................134 References ......................................................................................................................135 Chapter 4 Emerging Delivery and Mobility Services ...........................139 Deogratias Eustace, Kakan Dey, Md Tawhidur Rahman, Baraah Qawasmeh 4.1 Automated Delivery and Logistics ..............................................................139 4.1.1 Background ...........................................................................................139 4.1.2 Benefits of Automation of Delivery and Logistics ...................139 4.1.3 Automated Delivery and Logistic Applications ........................141 4.1.4 Technology in Automated Delivery and Logistics ..................143 4.1.5 Policy Considerations .........................................................................150 4.1.6 Future Research Directions ..............................................................150 4.2 Mobility as a Service .........................................................................................151 4.2.1 Role of Mobility as a Service in the Context of Smart Cities ............................................................................................153 4.2.2 Implementation Features of Mobility as a Service ..................154 4.2.3 Review of Mobility as a Service Initiatives around the World ........................................................................................................159 4.2.4 Application of Technologies in Mobility as a Service .............162 4.2.5 Potential Research Areas...................................................................164 4.3 Mobility on Demand ........................................................................................165 4.3.1 Importance of Mobility on Demand Services ...........................167 4.3.2 Implementation Features of Different Mobility on Demand Business Models for Passenger and Goods Movement ..............................................................................................172 4.3.3 Technologies Enabling Mobility on Demand Services ..........174 4.3.4 Contribution of Mobility on Demand in Shared Mobility Ecosystem .............................................................................175 4.3.5 Future Research Direction ................................................................176 4.4 Summary ..............................................................................................................177 References ......................................................................................................................178 Chapter 5 Shared Sustainable Mobility ................................................185 Kakan Dey, Deogratias Eustace, na Chen, Ting Zuo, Heng Wei, Md Tawhidur Rahman 5.1 Shared Vehicle Services ...................................................................................185 COnTEnTS ix 5.1.1 Background ...........................................................................................185 5.1.2 Shared Vehicle Services and Transformed Mobility Patterns ...................................................................................................185 5.1.3 Use of Technology in Shared Vehicle Services ..........................194 5.1.4 Future Research Directions ..............................................................197 5.2 Shared Bicycle Service .....................................................................................197 5.2.1 What is Shared Bicycle Service? .....................................................198 5.2.2 How is Shared Bicycle Service Operated? ..................................200 5.2.3 Engineering Issues ..............................................................................204 5.2.4 Urban Planning Issues .......................................................................205 5.3 First Mile/Last Mile Solutions ........................................................................207 5.3.1 Common Transportation Means Used for Connecting First Mile/Last Mile ..............................................................................208 5.3.2 First Mile/Last Mile Strategies .........................................................209 5.3.3 Technologies Powering First Mile/Last Mile Connection ............................................................................................214 5.4 Summary ..............................................................................................................216 References ......................................................................................................................217 Chapter 6 Cooperative and Automated Traffic Control .......................223 Heng Wei, Gaurav Kashyap, Zhixia Li 6.1 Traffic Signal Control Methods in Connected and Automated Vehicle Environment ........................................................................................223 6.2 Self-Organized Intelligent Adaptive Traffic Control ..............................226 6.2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................226 6.2.2 System Elements ..................................................................................229 6.2.3 Optimizing Traffic Signals .................................................................230 6.2.4 Self-Adaptive Signal Controls..........................................................232 6.2.5 Signal-Free Autonomous Intersection Control ........................234 6.2.6 Cooperative Coordinated Adaptive Corridor Signal Timing Optimization ..........................................................................240 6.3 Safe Interactions of Pedestrians/Cyclists with Automated Vehicles .................................................................................................................247 6.3.1 Background ...........................................................................................247 6.3.2 General Considerations of Transition Effect ..............................248 6.3.3 Pedestrian and Cyclist Reactions to Automated Vehicles .....249 6.3.4 Communication in Interactions between Roader Users and Automated Vehicles ...................................................................250 6.3.5 Automated Vehicle Communication with Pedestrians ..........251 6.4 Eco-Driving and Traffic Control ....................................................................251 6.4.1 Eco-Signal Control ...............................................................................251 6.4.2 Eco-Driving Control with Connected and Automated Vehicle Technologies .........................................................................256 6.4.3 Engine Restart Method .....................................................................260 6.5 Integrated Ramp and Corridor Control .....................................................260 6.5.1 Overview of Advanced Ramp Metering Technologies ..........260