Directions in International Terrorism Theories, Trends and Trajectories Edited by Hussein Solomon Directions in International Terrorism Hussein Solomon Editor Directions in International Terrorism Theories, Trends and Trajectories Editor Hussein Solomon Department of Political Studies and Governance University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa ISBN 978-981-16-3379-9 ISBN 978-981-16-3380-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3380-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such namesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreefor general use. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinforma- tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeen made.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmaps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:152BeachRoad,#21-01/04GatewayEast,Singapore 189721, Singapore Foreword ProfessorHusseinSolomon’sinvitationtowritethepresentforewardwas an honour, first in view of the author’s experience, qualities and reputa- tion as an academic researcher in the field of conflict and conflict resolu- tion, international relations and religious fundamentalism, and secondly because the subject matter—international terrorism in Africa, the Middle East and Europe—reaffirms the need to look at terrorism and its drivers from beyond one single region. I have also received his invitation as a sincere testimony to the profound mutual respect, esteem and friendship that unite us. This is indeed a very timely book. Twenty years after the dramatic events of 9/11, a plethora of books and academic studies have been published in an attempt to understand what is terrorism and what leads an individual to commit such an act or to join, support and sympa- thize with terrorist groups. However, these books fell short in linking researchtopolicy.Researchers,practitioners,specialistsandpolicy-makers have long complained about the lack of a comprehensive publication to assist them in devising measures, policies, frameworks and strategies on terrorism. This book does indeed that, as it combines theory and policy recommendations and its quantitative and qualitative in scope. Whatalsomakesthisbookuniqueisthatitcombinesdifferentscholars from different faith traditions, races, countries and cultures champi- oningdiversetheoreticaltraditions,asitattemptstoapproachthesubject holistically, bridging the various dichotomies existing in the area. v vi FOREWORD More specifically, the book examines original and unconventional aspects of international terrorism in Africa, the Middle East and Europe, as it explores issues that are not really explored in the present literature such as the issue of female jihadist, the environmental message of terror groups and their social media strategy, in addition to the changing role ofpeacekeepingoperationsandexistinggapsofstatescapacitytocounter the technological advancements of terrorists in the twenty-first century. Settingasidethechallengingquestionofdefiningterrorism,whichthe UN is still grappling with for over 40 years now, and the argument of “one Man’s Terroristis another Man’s Freedom Fighter”, and respecting the struggle waged by peoples in accordance with the principles of inter- national law for their liberation or self-determination, including armed struggle against colonialism, occupation, aggression and domination by foreign forces which shall not be considered as terrorism, it is critical to read the chapters from the perspective of the individual author’s expe- rience and background, as this helps to understand the arguments from their angle. The result is a remarkably detailed and readable exposition examining terrorism from ideological aspects to cultural identity, gover- nance, terrorist finance, migration, counter-insurgency warfare, in addi- tiontothedilemmaofterroristpropagandaandindividualfreedomssuch as the freedom of expression. Above all, the diversity of the chapters in the book reflects, unequiv- ocally, the complexity of the challenges faced by both researchers and policy-makers, in understanding terrorism and political violence, as we ponder on the future development of such threats. WearedeeplyindebtedtoProfessorSolomonforthisvaluableresearch which will contribute to the dissemination of knowledge about Interna- tional Terrorism. This publication will undoubtedly serve as a reference toresearchers,practitioners,policy-makersandthegeneralpublicandwill contribute to reinvigorating terrorism research and studies. Idriss Mounir Lallali Deputy-Director African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism (ACSRT) Mohammadia, Algeria Contents 1 Introduction 1 Hussein Solomon 2 Beyond Disciplinary Dogma: An Ontological Security Approach to Terrorism and Its Study 11 Bianca Naudé 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 The Nature of Terrorism: Ontological Questions and Definitional Dilemmas 13 2.3 Theorising Terrorism: Epistemological Debates and Theoretical Shortcomings 15 2.4 The Illusion of Control and Certainty: Ontological Security Theory 18 2.5 Concluding Remarks: Future Directions for Terrorism Research 23 References 28 3 Exploring the Confluence Between Terrorism and Identity in Africa 33 Hussein Solomon and Jude Cocodia 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Critical Theory, Critical Terrorism Studies, and Traditional Terrorism Studies 34 vii viii CONTENTS 3.3 State Repression, State Induced Poverty, and the Growth of Domestic Terrorism 36 3.4 Building Domestic Terrorism Through Fuelled Rivalries and Misrepresented Local Narratives 40 3.5 The Centuries Old Jihad Factor 42 3.6 CTS and the Case of Somalia’s Al Shabaab 43 3.7 TheNigerianStateandtheFacilitationofDomestic Terrorism 45 3.8 Senegal, in the Eye of West Africa’s Terrorism Storm 48 3.9 Concluding Insights 49 4 Updating Africa: Tweeting Terrorism 57 Alta Grobbelaar 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Varying Forms of Media 58 4.3 The African Audience 59 4.4 Terrorists Using the Media 61 4.5 Internet and Media Warfare 63 4.6 Al Shabaab’s Media Usage 65 4.7 The Influence of Terrorists’ Media Usage 70 4.8 Conclusion 73 5 The Environmental Message of Radical Islamic and Terrorist Groups 81 Moshe Terdiman 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Blaming the West for the Current Environmental Crisis 83 5.3 Launching Environmental Policies and Campaigns 84 5.4 Using the Environment as a Major Source of Income 87 5.5 The Use of Climate Change Effects and Environmental Scarcity for Recruitment Purposes 88 5.6 Using the Environment as a Weapon 89 5.7 Launching Attacks Against Energy Infrastructures 91 5.8 Summary 92 References 93 CONTENTS ix 6 Terror, Rebellion and Insurgency: Its Impact on Conservation in Africa 97 Kurt Steiner 6.1 Introduction 97 6.2 Background to the Conflict Ivory Narrative 99 6.2.1 Links to Terrorism in East Africa 101 6.2.2 Links in West Africa 102 6.2.3 This Study 103 6.3 The Exploitation of Nature in Supporting Terrorism 104 6.3.1 Allied Democratic Forces/National Army for the Liberation of Uganda 104 6.3.2 Forces Démocratiques De Libération Du Rwanda 106 6.3.3 Mai Mai 107 6.3.4 Lord’s Resistance Army 108 6.3.5 Janjaweed 109 6.3.6 Anti-Balaka and Seleka 110 6.4 Discussion 111 6.4.1 Ivory Forms a Small, but not Insignificant Part, of Terror Funding in Elephant Range States 112 6.4.2 Protected Areas Provide Unique Benefits to Armed Groups Unrelated to Wildlife Trafficking 113 6.4.3 Conservation Law Enforcement Agencies Often Lack the Mandate, Resources, and Capabilities to Effectively Control the Environmental Crimes of Armed Groups 113 6.5 Conclusion 114 7 Burning the Broth: Why African Counter-Terrorist Operations Frequently Fail 121 Eeben Barlow 7.1 Introduction 121 7.2 Defining the Indefinable 122 7.3 Causes and Consequences 124 7.4 Knowing and Understanding the Terrain… 126 7.5 Not Knowing the Enemy… 127 7.6 Underestimating the Threat 129 x CONTENTS 7.7 Identifying the Ingredients 130 7.8 Know and Understand the Ingredients of Fourth Generation Warfare 136 7.9 Why Have Anti-Government Forces and Terrorist Movements Been Successful? 138 7.10 Burning the Broth: Building Structures on Shaky Foundations 140 7.11 Adding More Unpalatable Ingredients: Irrelevant Training, Poor Advice, Little assistance—and Questionable Means and Ways 142 7.12 Conclusion 145 8 Peacekeeping in Africa While Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism 149 Anneli Botha 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2 Defining Peacekeeping and Other Important Concepts 151 8.3 United Nations Peacekeeping Missions in Africa 153 8.4 Troop Contributions 161 8.5 African Union Missions 170 8.6 AMISOM 171 8.7 Peacekeeping in the Broader Counterterrorism and the Prevention and Combating of Violent Extremism Debate 172 8.8 Future of Peacekeeping Operations in Africa 177 8.9 Enhancing the Success of Future Peacekeeping Missions in Africa 179 8.10 Conclusion 181 9 Social Attitudes Fuelling Islamist Terrorism 187 Arno Tausch 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 The Landscape We Are Facing 188 9.3 Methods and Data for Our Multivariate Analysis of Terror Support 192 9.4 >160.000 Victims from Islamist Terrorism in Four Decades 194 9.5 The Shari’a State 197