Indian Journal of History of Science, 49.4 (2014) 443-456 T M C : T C S HE AKING OF A LASSIC HE ONTEMPORARY IGNIFICANCE P.C. R ’ H A OF AY S ISTORICAL PPROACH Dhruv Raina* (Received 10 June 2014) Abstract Amongst the histories of science produced in early twentieth century India, P. C. Ray’s History of Hindu Chemistry, has acquired the status of a classic. This paper explores, as part of a more detailed study, the nineteenth century histories and historiography of chemistry as presented in the works of Thomson, Hoefer and Kopp, that shaped the writing of Ray’s History. More specifically, it seeks to identify the historiographic elements and contexts of nineteenth century chemistry that Ray drew upon and subsequently improvised in order to insert the history of Indian alchemy and chemistry within the mainstream narrative of the histories of science of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Key words: Alchemy, Chemical revolutions, History of chemistry, Iatrogenic chemistry 1. Introduction never “I am reading”’ (Calvino, 1986). This does not answer the question as much as postpones the Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray, founder of response. For in order to become a classic a work the Indian school of modern chemistry, published must simultaneously be both relevant and the first volume of a landmark work called History outdated; and the context of relevance constantly of Hindu Chemistry (hereafter History) in 1902, changes with historical context, and as the that went on to become a classic in the field. The philosopher of science Gaston Bachelard so book has been the subject of scholarship and eloquently argued with the evolution not only of discussion among historians as well as historians theory but with the constellations of knowledge. of science and I myself return to it after a period How else is one to understand in a more recent of sixteen years (Raina, 1997). What is it that context the Nobel Laureate and theoretical compels readers and scholars to revisit an author’s astrophysicist S. Chandraekhar’s preoccupation historical magnum opus? How are the with Newton’s Principia (Chandrasekhar, 2013). compulsions of the reader related to the process In other words returning to Calvino: “The classics of the canonization or the making of a classic? are books that exert a particular influence, both This essay does not attempt to answer these when they refuse to be eradicated from the mind questions. where they conceal themselves in the folds of memory, camouflaging themselves in the However, the Italian writer Italo Calvino collective or individual consciousness” in his book on The Uses of Literature points out (Calvino,1986). to some of the features of a work considered a classic: ‘The classics are the books of which we What does it mean to speak of the usually hear people say, “I am rereading …”, and simultaneous ‘out-datedness’ of a classic and its * Zakir Husain Center for Educational Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067; Email: [email protected] 444 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE extended relevance? Histories of Ayruveda and being a metaphor for a frame or a discourse beyond Indian alchemy anchored in recently discovered which one cannot pass. These earlier readings sources, and newer frames of interpretation confer were understandably strongly entrenched in issues on History a certain out-datedness if not of cognitive justice (Visvanathan, 1999), the irrelevance. Thus in an authoritative work on the attempts to engage with questions of the decline Siddha Traditions published at the end of the last of the sciences in India, or of the non-emergence century David Gordon White pointed towards a of modern science (Raina, 2003). “amplified scholarly error promulgated by Prafulla More than a decade after the publication Chandra Ray…”, and subsequently in the works of History Ray as a practicing modern chemist of renowned Indologists, and that was reiterated reviewing the progress of chemistry in Bengal throughout the century by scholars. The error arose reflected upon his historical magnum opus where from a faulty manuscript that Ray consulted and he had devoted a chapter to discussing the decline attributed its authorship to Nāgarjuna (White, of the scientific spirit in India. He writes: 1996, p. 160); which went to determine Ray’s “…I lamented that the spirit of inquiry conclusion that the early Tantric treatises were of had died out amongst a nation naturally Buddhist origin (White, 1996, p. 104). But the prone to speculation and metaphysical remedying of this scholarly error has not in any subtleties. Little did I dream then that in way eroded the merit of Ray’s history, based as it the course of a decade or so I should have to revise the estimate I then formed of the was in a close reading of relevant Sanskrit capacities of my own countrymen and manuscripts and texts. The continued relevance chronicle that a bright chapter is about to of Ray’s work arises from the issues concerning dawn in our life history” (Ray, 1918, scholars about the nature of Indian alchemy and p.45). its relation to chemistry, the issues concerning the For him too, the historical project and the circulation of Tantric knowledge not just about spread of modern chemistry in India contributed alchemy but medical practices, and in an area so to dispelling his image of the nation as predisposed little discussed it offers us one of the early to speculation and metaphysical reflection. The discussions of the Needham question in the South historical project provided a diagnosis of the past Asian context – even before Needham framed the and offered cautionary lessons for the question in the form known to us today. The latter contemporary practice and development of of course is nested with current debates on modern chemistry. One has to go back to the counterfactual, under determinationist and over beginnings of this article on chemistry in modern determinationist theories of history and debates Bengal to pin down the intent of Ray’s historical on modernity and social theory. digression. The powerful presence of History over a Squarely locating the identity of modern century amidst the relevant classics of the histories chemistry or what he calls “Scientific Chemistry” of science in South Asia could be comprehended in the work of Lavoisier, he feels that his argument in terms of this hypertextual density linked up with can only be understood in the light of the education the fact that it does provide practicing Indian of Bengali youth in the first half of the nineteenth chemists with an anchor for their own historical century: and cultural bearings. In disciplinary academic “…for the first 60 years or more the communities, re-readings are as much prompted intellectual pabulum of the Bengali by the identification of a scotoma that obscured youths was furnished by Shakespeare and the earlier readings of historians, the scotoma Milton, Bacon and Locke and Hume and HISTORICAL NOTE: THE MAKING OF A CLASSIC 445 Gibbon. It is barely two decades since decline of the sciences in India that in turn Bengal has seriously taken to original disrupted any participation in the exciting journey investigations in the fruitful field of of scientific discovery. The appeal to the past was chemistry” (Ibid., p.40) not so much about revival as to legitimate the Clearly, the moment of transition relates contemporary pursuit of science. Speaking of the to the introduction of science courses in the progress of chemistry in early twentieth century university towards the end of the 19th century – Bengal he would again remind his readers: courses that had been neglected to the exclusion “In my History of Hindu Chemistry I have of instruction in the humanities. devoted a chapter to the discussion of Returning to the landmark history of some of the causes which brought about the decline of scientific spirit in India, and chemistry authored by P.C. Ray, there are some how, during the period of intellectual new questions that I would like to examine. The stagnation which set in, our unhappy land work entitled History of Hindu Chemistry has was rendered morally unfit for the birth often been construed as, whether consciously or of a Boyle, a Descartes or a Newton. We hope we have slept off the torpor of ages not, inaugurating a discourse on Hindu Science and that it will be ours once more to and inadvertently creating an intellectual space for extend the bounds of knowledge”. (Ray, Hindu nationalism. This possibly arises from too 1918, p.24) quick and non-contextualized readings of passages The lament about India’s recent history is such as the following: certainly about decline and social inequality but “In that morning of ancient history, the this as much prefigures a variant of the Needham world looked forward to India for light question itself grounded in a comparative history and guidance, for knowledge of the of science – but more of the Acharya’s method accurate sciences such as algebra and later. Is one not over-interpreting Ray here and chemistry as shown in my History of stretching the reading too far? Again while Hindu Chemistry, for personal and social purity, for sacrifice and abstinence, for reviewing the progress of modern chemistry over plain living and high thinking. Now, a period of forty years in Bengal he would begin thanks to the cumulative effect of by pointing out where his own disquiet began: centuries of social inequalities and oppression, of the degradation of the “Thirty years ago, while a student at condition of women and of large sections Edinburgh, I began to notice that original of the people, and the walls of differences contributions by Japanese students of raised between man and man by custom Science had become a prominent feature and tradition, India now lies at the feet of in the Journals of the London and Berlin nations powerless and helpless. The blood Chemical Societies. Here was an Asiatic that flows from her heart and goes to her people, who could scarcely look back to brain does no longer reach the lower limbs a glorious past, adding to the world’s of the body-politic. As the consequence stock of knowledge; while India, the land of this abnormal condition, India finds of Buddha, which through the medium of these parts of her organism practically China had contributed in no small degree paralysed and atrophied. So long as the to the civilization of Japan, was sleeping blood does not begin to reflow and vitalise the sleep of ages. This thought had often the limbs which now remain palsied, there filled me alternately with pangs of despair is no chance for India to get back a place as also with emulation. It is a matter for in the sun”. (Ray, 1918, p.234) sincere congratulation that contributions from our advanced post-graduate students More than revivalism the passage seeks now bulk largely in the pages of the to pin point social inequality as the cause for the Chemical Journals of England, Germany 446 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE and America, and are beginning to shed contemporary approaches to the social history, we lustre to the chemical laboratory of the still need to specify its contemporary relevance. Presidency College” (Ray, 1918, p.32) In the discussion that follows it is argued The other Asian countries are that there are three counts on which the work comparatively benchmarked with respect to each remains significantly relevant to contemporaneous other, and with respect to the West. Reading today concerns. The first relates to the method adopted his essays on the practice of chemistry in early in framing his history of chemistry; the second twentieth century India alongside his History, the addresses the appropriate unit of historical reader cannot escape wondering whether Ray analysis; and finally the conceptual focus of the recognized the “institutional background” history itself. We could label the first the necessary for the evolution of scientific ideas and comparative method and an underlying hypothesis programmes. The elements of an argument are of the relationship between science and society; certainly there, but given the currency of the the second entails stretching of the idea of the late discussion in our own times, the shadow of the nineteenth century internationalism of science institutional argument acquires salience. To see towards a history that transcended the nation – it the shadow of our contemporary concerns in a would be an over-interpretation to call it a work from another century is certainly one of the transnational history, simply because he was markers of work considered a classic. writing in the heyday of a burgeoning Indian Amongst the many contemporary nationalism and some of that nationalism rubbed criticisms of History is also the charge that Ray of him but not in a cultural nationalist way. And over interprets an alchemical tradition as a the third falls squarely within the contemporary “chemical” one. It is not my purpose to refute these renewal in the history of chemistry dealing with charges because they do not stand up to a serious the “sites of chemistry” and as the history of and close reading of the History, or its science undergoes a larger transition from the history of science to the history of knowledge. contextualization. In what follows I shall seek to discuss the process of framing the History, the By the late nineteenth century the sources, context and the historiographical comparative method in history had been premises. In a paper published more than standardized in order to explain differences in the seventeen years ago, I had argued that in South trajectory of historical development of distinct Asia Ray must be considered the inaugurator of cultures and civilizations – underlying it was an the social history of science – this beginning arose overdeterminationist theory of history, that evoked from his reckoning with the limitations of “deficits” to explain distinct historical trajectories. internalism1. However, the social history that he Ray worked within that framework and to that did inaugurate was not of the same historiographic extent was subject to its limitations and its critique nuance as we understand the social history of the that developed in the 1980s. But the method he 1960s that coruscated in the work of Christopher adopted recognized different ways of classifying Hill and others. However, many of the conclusions and organizing nature and he himself sought of that limited social history continue to occupy explanations within the language of chemistry, but historians of alchemy and Ayurveda even today let the historians speak about the social context. and guide their work. But now that social history But it is here that Ray surprises his has been circumscribed in presentist terms, or put contemporaneous reader inasmuch as he displays differently characterized as belonging to the that rare faculty acquired normally by the seasoned prehistory in a teleological schema leading up to reader of historical texts, interpretations and HISTORICAL NOTE: THE MAKING OF A CLASSIC 447 manuscripts – an exemplary faculty of historical possible to draw object lessons for the future. The judgment so central to historical work. evidence of historical episodes that repeatedly come up in his discussions and writings are of And finally, a number of historians of three kinds – ethical, political and methodological. science have been lately, in a fit of epistemological At the ethical level the history of science offered reflexivity, reinventing themselves as historians lessons of two kinds – of the persona of the of knowledge, and not without reason. For one scientist as a sage that provided future scientists the term science makes sense within an with a role model; and secondly the idea that institutional and disciplinary matrix, which in turn beyond the individual and the nation the richness precludes other classification of knowledge and of science drew upon an ethic of internationalism. other forms of institutional belonging or Secondly, in political terms, the history of science, embeddedness. The term knowledge provides inspired by the ideals of the enlightenment more scope of play and runs against particular provided the justification of narratives of formats of exceptionalism. The French sociologist emancipation and progress – and it is not for me of knowledge Christian Jacob has produced here to discuss whether he was misled or plainly several gigantic volumes on the sites of knowledge wrong. And finally, the history of science offered and more recently in a similar spirit Perkins has been inspiring historians of chemistry to look at methodological lessons for the practice of science the sites of chemistry, wherein the production, itself – in which case, like for Eduard Dijksterhuis circulation and dissemination of chemical the history of science becomes the epistemological knowledge is not restricted to the laboratory of laboratory of science. These issues have been the university or industrial research institute discussed in more detail in (Raina, 1997), though (Jacob, 2007; Perkins, 2013). A close scrutiny of not in these very terms. Ray’s History would reveal the amount of time As will be seen, it is with respect to this and space he had dedicated to detailing alchemical task of reconstructing de noveau the history of practices in ancient India as well as to the different chemistry of India that Ray is confronted with a sites of chemical knowledge from the goldsmith double challenge. On the one hand, nineteenth to the dyer and a range of other professions but century historians of chemistry, still practicing more importantly the artisan. The sources of this chemists, needed to engage with the scientisation radicalism in Ray’s case and the revisionism in of their discipline, to identify the moment of the case of Perkins are naturally quite distinct and rupture, the epistemic dimensions of the break with rooted in very different compulsions. All the same the past, when chemistry outgrew alchemy – this they do share an overlap with the evolution of problematic is that of the scientificity of chemistry chemical practices and knowledge. as a discipline. The disciplinary identity of In terms of Ray’s theory of history, one chemistry or alchemy has been and continues to gets the feeling, in the light of his very extensive be a subject of historical accounts. Secondly, and and detailed reading of the history of sciences and related to this is the task then of producing a history the copious evidence that he sights, that he saw of chemistry in English, framed within a discourse history as providing lessons – the large number of the modernity of science. As has been pointed of historical episodes that he cites are strung out, the autonomous discipline of chemistry together as if they fell into a general pattern from emerges in the eighteenth century and which one could make two inferences. The first retrospectively it is in the nineteenth century that that history was for him perhaps a quasi- chemistry is seen as a “mature science” nomothetic discipline which implied that it was (Bensaude-Vincent, 2008). It is this side of Ray’s 448 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE work that the reader is invited to revisit – the development of new analytical techniques such engagement with the notion of alchemy, and the as solvent analysis and the creation of concepts manner in which he employs the historiographies such as constituent element. As a result medical of English, French and German chemists as and pharmaceutical applications fostered the resource to frame his own narrative. For we are development of both chemical science and informed rather soon in History that: “… chemical technologies. In other words the modest Thomson, Hoefer and Kopp have been my attitude is premised on the hypothesis that companions for the last twelve years or more” chemistry served the liberal arts such as medicine (Ray, 1902). The works of these chemists are not which was no obstacle to the growth of the cited for what they say on the history of chemistry discipline (Ibid., p.55). on the subcontinent, but provide an European The arrogant posture portrays chemists comparative or contextual backdrop for his own playing God, where sometimes the image of framing or intercalation into that “universalizing” Paracelsus is evoked, an image that was reinforced project (Chakrabarty, 2000). in the nineteenth century with the emergence of Interestingly enough, the history of synthetic chemistry (Ibid., p. 55). It could be chemistry as a discipline unfolding as a positive suggested that Ray, given his own work at the science was invented by chemists such as Thomas conjuncture of synthetic chemistry and Thomson in the early nineteenth century down to pharmacology adopted the modest attitude in the opus of Partington in the twentieth century. framing his history of chemistry even though the The others who had a role to play in the invention work is not entirely free of some of the of this history were Hermann Kopp, Adolphe millenarianism that histories of chemistry Wurtz and Marcelin Berthelot (Bensaude-Vincent, sometimes offered, a posture adopted to inspire 2008, p.53); and from his own writings Prafulla and win over converts to the discipline. Chandra Ray was familiar with the chemical researches and historical works of several of these 2. The Nineteenth Century writers and was as he says in his Autobiography Historiography of Chemistry responding to request of one of them (Ray, 1932). in the History In any case, since the historical account The intent of this excursus into the history of a discipline may also be framed along several of the history of chemistry is to essentially point axes, one of which is contingent upon the out that the History was written during a half- disciplinary posture adopted. Bensaude-Vincent century when practicing chemists were still has suggested that there are two longue-durée writing histories to celebrate the arrival of postures chemistry has acquired in its relation with chemistry as a positive science among other proximate disciplines, which she calls the modest attitude and the arrogant attitude (Bensaude- positive sciences. An imperative for these histories Vincent, 2008, p. 54). According to the modest was to identify and establish the moment, epoch attitude “… the urgency of chemistry for and the content of the rupture for alchemy – which pharmaceuticals and medical training was the for many practicing chemists was a memory they foundation of the establishment of Chemistry would choose to forget. The canonized histories Chairs in European universities…” Public of Thomson, Hoefer and Kopp, that inspired Ray, experimental demonstrations appealed to medical had detailed and marked the conceptual and and pharmaceutical audiences and set the agenda practical departures that placed chemistry on its for chemical research. This further entailed the path to achieving scientificity. HISTORICAL NOTE: THE MAKING OF A CLASSIC 449 I shall argue in the paragraphs that follow nineteenth century, the history of chemistry was that Thomson’s The History of Chemistry (1830), characterized as having passed through three Ferd Hoefer’s, Histoire de la Chimie depuis les major epochs. Hoefer would suggest three epochs Temps les Plus Reculés (1842) and Hermann characterizing the history of sciences that have Kopp’s Geschichte der Chemie (1875) provided displayed an oscillatory motion between Ray with a cognitive frame endowed with theoretical and practical orientations. In the first important chronological markers, pharmacological epoch, according to him the intelligence which and experimental milestones enabling him to compares facts is independent and free from the sequence and order the historical materials and hindrances of superstition and systematic texts on Hindu chemistry, guided by the concerns prejudice. Although devoid of scientific proof, the of chemists engaging with the historical past of doctrines of primitive intuition often surprise us their recently acquired disciplinary identity. These by their correctness. This epoch, which is markers, milestones and ruptures enabled what has obviously inclined towards practice, embraces retrospectively been labeled settling issues of antiquity, and stretches until the epoch of the cognitive justice, in addition to which in India Ray unforgettable conflict between rising Christianity was appealing to new audiences and readerships. and paganism. In the second epoch, the orientation The first of these concerns has been discussed in towards observation gets weaker or is lost. an earlier paper and I shall merely reiterate where Subjected to spiritual authority, thought leaves the necessary what has been argued there. field of experience to take refuge in the domain of mystical and supernatural speculation. We On the contrary, three important issues that encounter in this epoch much that is strange, the appear in the standard nineteenth centuries doctrines of the adherents of sacred art and of histories of chemistry, serve as exemplars in the alchemy. This epoch, which is inclined more Kuhnian sense of the term, for the Acharya’s particularly towards theory, extends from the history. In pointing this out it must not be assumed Middle Ages, until modern times3 (Hoefer, 1842, that the disciplinary identity of chemistry as a p. 1-2). Evident here is a version of the Comtean positive science had been irreversibly settled but stages of social development and the stadial rather that Ray himself has to perform the task of thinking that marked much of Enlightenment navigating between the task of producing a history thought. In the third epoch finally, which is ours, of “Hindu chemistry” that finds its place alongside light seems to appear after darkness, as though the histories of Western and/or modern chemistry, the law of contrast had to be necessarily fulfilled while reckoning that in the West too the everywhere. During the last stage chemistry as disciplinary history of chemistry had not yet put science emancipates itself from the clutches of to rest the ghosts and the gremlins that haunted alchemy in early modernity, with Paracelsus and the past of the discipline.2 Hoefer, in his his school inaugurating this epoch in the history magisterial Histoire de la Chimie warns his readers of the discipline. Ray finds this chronology very that he has no model or enyclopaedic method with useful and adapts it to his narrative, while at other which to approach the problem of the history of times on some issues subverts it, in framing the chemistry and that he could only but return to the evolution of alchemy-chemistry in South Asia. sources and cite original texts in the hope of Thus he quotes the work of another important throwing light on the problem (Hoefer, 1842, p. organic chemist, Carl Schorlemmer, The Rise and v-vi) Development of Organic Chemistry (1894): Typical of most histories of chemistry “Up to the XVIth century almost the sole published in the late eighteenth and through the object of chemical research had been to 450 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE find the philosopher’s stone. But now The Paracelsan revolution, if one may call chemistry began to develop itself two new it that, beyond the chronological indexing, is and different paths, opened by two qualified by a second epistemological aspect. This distinguished men – Agricola, the father of metallurgy, and Paracelsus, the founder transition and departure is marked by the rise of of iatro-chemistry or medical chemistry4. iatro-chemistry and the possible decentering of the Both contributed chiefly to the search for the philosopher’s stone. For development of inorganic chemistry… In Schorlemmer, as we have seen above, it was the opposition to the school of Galen and Avicenna, Paracelsus and his followers work of Agricola and Paracelsus that announces chiefly employed metallic preparations as the emergence of chemistry, but Ray’s argument medicines”. (Ray, 1902, p. c-ci) seems to place more significance on the Paracelsan Clearly, as discussed elsewhere this stream. The contributions of Paracelsus as epistemological milestone in the history of the inaugurating a phase of iatro-chemistry as well as discipline orders the evolution of chemistry in the introduction of mercurial and metallic South Asia (Raina, 1997). However, an preparations into medical practice are seen to be observation that requires salience here is that Ray’s of central importance, and in some way flags the own account disrupts what I have in another beginnings of the phase of modern chemistry5. context called the “narrative of progress” that Paracelsus’ views about ill and healthy human characterizes the enlightenment and post- bodies were based on a chemical view of the body enlightenment histories of science (Raina, 2011). and treatment. In other words, it was oriented The just mentioned histories of science had often towards chemistry, applied to pharmacology – a to encounter these disruptions when encountering subject not too far from Ray’s own area of research histories of knowledge of other cultures and concerns. Paracelsus himself explained that civilizations, and a number of innovative strategies chemistry was one of the four pillars of medicine, were invented to either accommodate them or re- but had thus far been been pursued as alchemy; signify them within the chronology of progress. he also sometimes speaks of the (religious) art of This disruption of the standard chronology is not refining metals in a way that could be employed quite insisted upon by Ray in a nationalist “We- for the same purposes, and emphasized his did-it-first” manner. He thus points out that achievements in this art (Kopp, 1875, p.134). This “In the European histories of chemistry, move from alchemy to a naturalist view of the the credit of being the first to press body and its treatment through the administration chemical knowledge into the service of of chemical drugs goes some distance in medicine and introduce the use of the internal administration of mercurial explaining Paracelsus’ reception as one of the preparations, is given to Paracelsus… The inaugurators of modern chemistry. This left a deep Nāgarjunas and Patānjalis of India, signature on Ray’s own historiography and is however, had the merit of anticipating reflected in his popular writing on Paracelsus as Paracelsus and his followers by several centuries… We have indeed reasons to well, providing him a comparative context and an suspect that Paracelsus got his ideas from important opening for his detailed discussion on the East, and in Chapter on Arabian Rasayana seen as the science of mercury. indebtedness to India we have pointed out the media through which Indian sciences And finally, a crucial premise of the filtered into Europe” (Ray, 1902, p. cii). modest posture in the historiography of chemistry The point here is not to adjudicate Ray’s has been, in the conceptual vocabulary of Hacking, claim, but more importantly to see how the the view of chemistry as a science of intervening standard chronology operates within his work. more than representing [Bensaude-Vincent, 2008]. HISTORICAL NOTE: THE MAKING OF A CLASSIC 451 In that sense too, the Paracelsian traditions was distinction here from the European context, construed as very close to the crafts, artisanal and because Thomson must struggle with a situation practical traditions rather than those of the high where disciplinary differentiation characterizes the university scholars. These traditions as understood practice of the sciences in nineteenth century by these chemist-historians, were ones where the Europe – so where is iatro-chemistry to be practitioners soiled their hands with the murky situated? It is “intimately connected with the substances they worked with and upon, and history of medicine”, but “… undoubtedly thereby elaborated upon centuries of experience contributed to the improvement of chemistry”. The and testing6. The metatheoretical presupposition rationale he finally employs for opting for the of course being that the chemical revolution like history of chemistry is the application to the the revolution in physics and astronomy was an discovery of “chemical medicines” [Thomson, outcome of the conjunction of the theoretical 1830, p.iv-v]. The second volume of Hoefer’s traditions and the practical arts. This remained a Histoire de la Chimie is entitled “Chémiatrie”, central metatheoretical thesis in Ray’s historical which he elaborates upon as a chemistry applied writing, and would surface in the social to medicine (Hoefer, 1843, p.9). This is rationale explanations on either the decline of the sciences enough for Ray to incorporate iatro-chemistry in in India or the phenomenon of the non-emergence the discussion on the history of chemistry. of the scientific revolution. Discussing the status of alchemy in India 3. Framing the History of in the 10th century he relies on Al Biruni whom he Alchemy-Chemistry quotes in extenso: “…The Hindus do pay particular attention to alchemy, but no nation is However, as a historian of science it would free from it, and one nation has more bias for it be interesting to re –read the History and to have than another, which must not be construed as examined how Ray frames the field of Indian proving intelligence or ignorance; for we find that alchemy and Indian chemistry. The term framing many intelligent people are entirely given to is deliberately and consciously employed to allude alchemy, whilst ignorant people ridicule the art to the literary process of telling a story within a and its adept ... I have not been able to learn from story. The historiography of chemistry as the Hindus which methods they follow in this evidenced in the works of Thomson, Hoefer and science and what element they principally use, Kopp are reworked by Ray to tell a related but whether a mineral or an animal or a vegetable one. different story. The compositional or structural elements are about the same, but the details are I only heard them speaking of the process of arranged differently. The first chapter of his history sublimation, of calcination, of analysis, and of the is entitled “Alchemical Ideas in the Vedas”, where waxing of talc, which they call in their language he points out that the “…progress of chemical “talaka” and so I guess that they incline towards knowledge in the ancient civilized world was the mineralogical method of alchemy...They have invariably…associated with medicinal a science similar to alchemy which is quite preparations, metallurgical operations, the peculiar to them...They call it Rasāyana...It means technical arts and the transmutation of metals”. the art which is restricted to certain operations, The special feature of chemistry in India was that drugs and compound medicines, most of which it developed as the “handmaid of medicine, and are taken from plants. Its principles restore the somewhat later on, as an adjunct of the Tantric health of those who were ill beyond hope”(Ray, cult”. (Ray, 1902, p. i). It is important to note the 1902. p.lix-lxi). 452 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE While the detailed textual reading of departure (separation of the function of the priest History is presented in (Raina, 2014) it must be and physician), more importantly there appears pointed out here that Ray does not commit the the idea that the medical profession was extended historiographical error of presentism or conflates over a geographical space and that medical texts the epistemology of alchemy with that of modern were written for and speaking to these dispersed chemistry. Thus he writes: “As Hindu medicine communities who shared a technical language. For has seldom been able to shake itself completely this reading he draws on the studies of the French free from the influence of magic and alchemy as Indologist Palmyr Cordier to conclude that: “On auxiliaries, physicians, as practicers of the black reading the Caraka, one often feels as if it art have been given an inferior position in the legal embodies the deliberations of an international treatises”(Ray, 1902, p. viii). As pointed out in congress of medical experts, held in the Himalayan (Raina, 1997) he is the inaugurator in India of a regions to which distant Balkh (Bactriana) sent a version of the social history of science for a variety representative of Kāmkhāyana (Ray, 1902, p. xxii). of reasons one of which was to explain the The struggle for cognitive justice impediments to the growth of a tradition as manifests itself here in the form of an ambivalent function of the social status of the practitioners. nationalism, for in a way he almost reiterates This was a fundamental asymmetry of internalist- another French contemporary Louis Pasteur when externalist explanations. The epistemological was he points out that: evoked to explain successful scientific “… The capacity of a nation must be development and the social to explain failure. This judged by what it has independently bimodal frame of explanation was to infect the achieved in the several fields of history of sciences almost till the rise of social knowledge and branches of literature – constructivism and the arrival of sociological Mathematics, including Arithmetic and Algebra, geometry and Astronomy; history of science. Phonetics, Philology, Grammar, law, Furthermore, when speaking of the second Philosophy and Theology”. (Ray, 1902, p. xl). period of the history of Hindu Chemistry that he labels the Ayurvedic period he points out that: But more than the nationalism for there “…the Hindu system methodised and arranged on are many more occasions, as with Pasteur, where rational basis, with a scientific methodology”. his internationalism trumps the nationalism - this Suggesting that about a thousand or more years is a matter and a struggle for justice. So he goes separated the age of the Atharva Veda from that on to write that: of Caraka (Ray, 1902, .xi). In the comparative “…It is curious to reflect that the context, he then extrapolates an idea from John upholders of the “Greek Culture”are often William Draper’s History of the Intellectual found ready, though unconsciously, to exist and torture facts and conclusions to Development of Europe, in quoting him: “The serve their own purpose, and reserve to necessary consequence of this great success was themselves the benefit of doubt as regards the separation of the pursuits of the physician from date; but whenever the priority of Hindus those of the priest”(Ray, 1902, p.xii). In other is unquestionable, an appeal is made to words the transition from Atharvan period to the the theory of common origin and independent parallelism of growth. These Ayurvedic one is marked by a division of labour scholars seem to smart under a sense of separating the hieratic from the curative injury if they have to confess that Europe professions. Caraka and Suśruta not only mark an owes an intellectual debt to India”(Ray, epistemic (methodological) and sociological 1902, p. xlii).