ISSN: XXXX-XXXX Vol. 2 (1), Global Journal of art and social Science pp. 033-055, March, 2014. © Education Global Science Research Journals Full Length Research Paper Deviations in the use of English articles by Amharic Speakers and Tigrigna speakers-freshmen of Asmara University: their causes and Pedagogical Implications Tecle Ghebremuse University of Asmara, Eritrea Email: [email protected] rd Accepted 23 March, 2014 This research article investigates the extent of the correct uses of English articles by Amhari speakers and Tigrigna speakers who studied English as a foreign language. Data were collected from 160 students through a test on English articles. The low scores may have been resulted from the unavailability of adequate grammar and supplementary reading books. It is possible to infer that the errors are the results from intralingual interference. The results show the descending order of deviations in the use of „a‟, „the‟, an‟ to the „null‟ article. The Amharic speakers performed better than the Tigrigna speakers in the „null‟ article while the Tigrigna speakers outperformed the Amharic speakers in the uses of „the‟, „a‟, and „an‟, articles. The order of difficulties in the use of articles in increasing are: retrospective reference, immediate surrounding, the use of superlative forms and with phrases or clauses. With respect to socio-psychological information, the Tigrigna speakers used more English than the Amharic speakers. Key Words: Amharic speakers, Tigrigna speakers-freshmen, pedagogical implications deviations, english articles INTRODUCTION The use of articles in English is examined on the basis of factors in the use of articles was taken into account. The t he responses from 160 students information about the students and their family (80 Amharic and 80 Tigrigna speakers) i.e. freshmen background was obtained from the responses of 604 from Asmara University 1985/86. A test on definite and freshmen (including the 160 students) to the indefinite articles was given to these 160 freshmen and q uestionnaires prepared for this paper. their control on articles is examined in relation to the The researcher attempted to examine the relationship forms and functions of articles. The use of articles in between these socio-psychological factors and the d ifferent syntactic structures-on potential places for the results of the 160 students in the use of articles. The „null‟ articles is considered, too. The researcher social factors such as radio, television and the cinema; attempted to establish a hierarchy of difficulties, and to contacts with the written language as provided by reading classify the errors. The causes of the errors have been matter, the home group, community, attitude and the examined and their pedagogical implications suggested. psychological factors such as age, motivation, etc. Moreover, the influences of the socio-psychological facilitate second language learning. Their influences on Glob. J. art soc. Sci. Edu. 034 learning a second language have been expounded by the). 64 articles were deleted. The remaining 9 articles some investigators such as Rivers (1964), selinker were retained because they were at the beginning of ( 1972), etc. sentences. There were also 30 potential places for the This study mainly reflects the description and explanation „null‟ article. Thus, the text consisted of 94 items to be of errors on English articles in terms of intralingual tested. interference because the investigator is of the opinion that Amharic/Tigrigna and English are not related The test was given to 160 freshmen (who were selected languages and the errors of these learners of English as randomly) in the form of a running text. There were no a second language are possible causes by intralingual blank spaces in the text. In this case, the students were interference. Researches at describing and explaining expected to locate the 64 potential places for articles and intralingual errors in learning a second language have write the articles at the potential place for articles been made by some investigators such as Richards between the lines which were written in double space. (1974), Jain (1974), etc.; likewise, this study attempts to The potential places were: 35 for the definite article „the, consider the intralingual errors (to some extent) in the 23 for the indefinite article „a‟, 6 for indefinite article. „an‟ Eritrean context. and 30 for the „null‟ article. 2. A questionnaire was prepared to elicit the socio- The purpose and objectives of this study are: psychological items of information about each information/student. 1. to study the nature, cause and source of deviations in the use of articles by freshmen Amharic and Tigrigna speakers from ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A smara University 1985/86. 2. to establish hierarchy of difficulties faced in The responses of 160 freshmen to the test of English learning English articles. articles and the responses of 604 freshmen (including the 3. to suggest pedagogical implications. 160 students) to the questionnaire are discussed below. 4. to compare the results of Amharic and Tigrigna Stephen Leacock‟s insertion of articles in the text tested s peakers in the use of English articles. was taken as the established norm. The students‟ 5. to understand the influences of socio-psychological deviations from the norms are attempted to be f actors on the students” results on categorized and the hierarchy of difficulties established. the test in the use of English articles. The possible causes/sources of error are suggested. The pedagogical implications of these deviations have been considered, too. METHOD The responses of the students to the test on articles are Subjects categorized in terms of the following categories: A . Nouns or noun phrases preceded by articles: The sample consisted of equal number of Amharic and 1. Insertion of the definite article „the‟ Tigrigna speakers (160). They were freshmen in the 2. Insertion of the indefinite article „a‟ and academic year of 1985-86. Data on the uses of English 3. Insertion of the indefinite article „an‟. articles were collected from the students‟ answers to the B. Nouns or noun phrases not preceded by any article. test on articles. The students began studying English in 1. Nouns or noun phrases never preceded by any article. grade three as a subject and as a medium of education in 2. Nouns or noun phrases not preceded by any article in grade seven. All in all, they studied English as a foreign certain contexts. language for nearly ten years. They were in the age group of 16-25 years. These students had been exposed In this analysis, the total number of attempts that could be to English outside their classrooms. made for each potential place in each category/sub- category is calculated. Then the percentages of correct and incorrect responses are also calculated in terms of MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES the total number of attempts. The number of attempts is equal to the number of students times the number of 1. An essay „my Financial Career‟ by Stephen Leacock potential places for one kind of article or the „null‟ article was prepared for the test. A slight modification which in each sub-category/category. Moreover, the includes deletion of proper names was made in it to suit performance or the percentage scores of Amharic and the Eritrean situation. It was a very interesting passage Tigrigna speakers are compared and the influences of the that includes enough examples of nearly all important socio-psychological factors on the results of the students uses of articles. The modified text consisted of 532 words on the test in the use of English articles are considered. and included 73 instances of articles (a, an and Ghebremuse 035 Table 1-A: Use of „the‟ by Amharic Speakers Places the % A % an % Ø % the door 61 76.25 10 12.50 0 0.00 9 11.25 that the bank a 48 60.00 13 16.25 0 0.00 19 23.75 the best place 38 47.50 3 3.75 0 0.00 39 48.75 the clerks b 32 40.00 6 7.50 0 0.00 42 52.50 the manager b 44 55.00 17 21.25 1 1.25 18 22.50 the counter 28 35.00 22 27.50 0 0.00 30 37.50 the manager b 61 76.25 9 11.25 0 0.00 10 12.50 the accountant a 54 67.50 1 1.25 6 7.50 19 23.75 the manager b 39 48.75 22 27.50 0 0.00 19 23.75 the way b 21 26.25 13 16.25 0 0.00 46 57.50 the key b 33 41.25 17 21.25 0 0.00 30 37.50 the lock b 14 17.50 8 10.00 0 0.00 58 72.50 the son 13 16.25 28 35.00 2 2.50 37 46.25 the door a 68 85.00 1 1.25 1 1.25 10 12.50 the accountant a 57 71.25 1 1.25 12 15.00 10 12.50 the side 41 51.25 3 3.75 1 1.25 35 43.75 the safe b 20 25.00 9 11.25 0 0.00 51 63.75 the manager a 60 75.00 1 1.25 0 0.00 19 23.75 the other way b 25 31.25 0 0.00 11 13.75 44 55.00 the accountant 51 63.75 2 2.50 4 5.00 23 28.75 the ball 59 36.25 20 25.00 0 0.00 31 38.75 the money a 48 60.00 2 2.50 0 0.00 30 37.50 the sum a 23 28.75 5 6.25 0 0.00 52 65.00 The account a 57 71.25 2 2.50 8 10.00 13 16.25 the bark a 46 57.50 4 5.00 1 1.25 29 36.25 the impression 4 5.00 3 3.75 19 23.75 54 67.50 the cheque a 59 73.75 8 10.00 1 1.25 12 15.00 the clerk a 38 47.50 11 13.75 0 0.00 31 38.75 the whole thing b 40 50.00 1 1.25 0 0.00 39 48.75 the clerk a 57 71.25 0 0.00 0 0.00 23 28.75 the money b 48 60.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 32 40.00 the big door a 38 47.50 13 16.25 0 0.00 29 36.25 the echo 5 6.25 0 0.00 35 43.75 40 50.00 the ceiling 48 60.00 2 2.25 0 0.00 30 37.50 the bank b 50 62.50 5 6.25 0 0.00 25 31.25 Total 1398 49.93 262 9.38 102 3.64 1038 37.07 A. Nouns or noun phrases preceded by articles. a. Specification due to retrospective reference These nouns or nouns phrases are divided into three sub-categories as mentioned above. The definite article „the‟ is used before a noun which has been used for the second time because of retrospective 1. Insertion of the definite article „the‟ specification. In the text, there are 13 potential places of these instances. In 62.80% of the attempts, the Amharic In English the definite article has a specifying function. speakers inserted the definite article „the‟ correctly and in The nouns or noun phrases it precedes may be specified 65.92%, the Tigrigna speakers inserted it correctly. in several ways. Consequently, in the test, there are 35 Here the students tend to insert the definite article „the‟ potential places where the definite article is required. more frequently when the noun in question is the subject of T hese potential places are specifications due to: a reporting verb than when it is the object of a verb. There is a) retrospective reference. also slight difference in the correct insertion of the definite b) immediate surrounding. article „the‟ even in identification environment. This c) the use of superlative degree. suggests that the students have not completely internalized d) a phrases or clause. the rules in the use of the definite article „the‟ Glob. J. art soc. Sci. Edu. 036 Table 1-B Use of „the‟ by Tigrigna Speakers Places the % a % an % Ø % the door 59 73.75 14 17.50 0 0.00 7 8.75 that the bank a 51 63.75 9 11.25 0 0.00 20 25.00 the best place 33 41.25 1 1.25 0 0.00 46 57.50 the clerks b 46 57.50 5 6.25 0 0.00 29 36.25 the manager b 50 62.50 17 21.25 1 0.00 13 16.25 the counter 42 52.50 19 23.75 0 0.00 19 23.75 the manager b 60 75.00 7 8.75 0 0.00 13 16.25 the accountant a 65 81.25 1 1.25 6 7.50 8 10.00 the manager b 44 55.00 28 35.00 0 0.00 8 10.00 the way b 14 17.50 14 17.50 0 0.00 52 65.00 the key b 39 48.75 15 18.75 0 0.00 26 32.50 the lock b 4 5.00 13 16.25 0 0.00 63 78.75 the son 11 13.75 33 41.25 0 0.00 36 45.00 the door a 70 87.50 1 1.25 0 0.00 9 11.25 the accountant a 46 57.50 0 0.00 31 38.75 3 3.75 the side 28 35.00 3 3.75 0 0.00 49 61.25 the safe b 21 26.25 16 20.00 0 0.00 43 53.75 the manager a 68 85.00 1 1.25 0 0.00 11 13.75 the other way b 23 28.75 0 0.00 12 15.00 45 56.25 the accountant 58 72.50 0 0.00 10 12.50 12 15.00 the ball 27 33.75 33 41.25 0 0.00 20 25.00 the money a 53 66.25 3 3.75 0 0.00 24 30.00 the sum a 30 37.50 1 1.25 0 0.00 49 61.25 the account a 58 72.50 0 0.00 15 18.75 7 8.75 the bark a 45 56.25 3 3.75 0 0.00 32 40.00 the impression 4 5.00 0 0.00 26 32.50 50 62.50 the cheque a 66 82.50 7 8.75 0 0.00 7 8.75 the clerk a 45 56.25 10 12.50 0 0.00 25 31.25 the whole thing b 49 61.25 2 2.50 0 0.00 29 36.25 the clerk a 61 76.25 1 1.25 0 0.00 18 22.50 the money b 40 50.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 40 50.00 the big door a 28 35.00 20 25.00 0 0.00 32 40.00 the echo 5 6.25 0 0.00 38 47.50 37 46.25 the ceiling 33 41.25 8 10.00 0 40.00 39 48.75 the bank 57 71.25 2 2.50 0 0.00 21 26.25 Total 1433 51.19 287 10.25 138 4.93 942 33.64 Potential places = 2800 when the specification is due to retrospective reference. Generally speaking, the low percentage scores in this These nouns or noun phrases are in Table 1-A and B sub-category seem to indicate the students‟ less marked „a‟. exposure to English literature and grammar. b. Specification due to immediate surrounding c. Specification due to the use of superlative degree The definite article „the‟ is used before a noun which represents only one particular thing because of its In English the definite article is used before superlatives locality. The noun is specified in the immediate as in „the finest‟, „the most beautiful‟ „the highest‟ etc. In surrounding. There are 12 potential places in this sub- the test passage, „the bank was the best place for it‟ is c ategory. the only superlative form. The students have learned this The average percentage of correct insertion of the rule for several years but the correct insertions were d efinite article „the‟ are 44.48 and 46.56 for Amharic and 47.50% and 41.25% for Amharic and Tigrigna speakers Tigrigna speakers respectively. The nouns or noun respectively. The Amharic speakers did not insert any p hrases are in Table 1-A and B marked „b‟. article in 48.75% of the attempts while the Tigrigna The percentages of inserting „the‟ correctly before nouns speakers did not insert any article in 57.50% of the a s 17.50 in the lock‟ and 26.25 in „led the way‟ by attempts. These results suggest that these students have Tigrigna speakers are very low. In this case, there was a not internalized the rule on the use of the definite article tendency of omitting the definite article. before superlative forms. Here, the results of the Ghebremuse 037 Table 2A: Use of „a‟ by Amharic Speakers Places the % A % an % Ø % a bank 28 35.00 0 0.00 20 25.00 32 40.00 a month 62 77.50 0 0.00 0 0.00 18 22.50 a person 39 48.75 0 0.00 6 7.50 35 43.75 a tall old fellow 16 20.00 0 0.00 2 250 62 77.50 a crewed up ball 19 23.75 0 0.00 4 5.00 57 71.25 a terrible secret 45 56.25 0 0.00 3 3.75 32 40.00 a private room 25 31.25 0 0.00 11 13.75 44 55.00 a detective 39 48.75 0 0.00 2 2.50 39 48.75 a detective 39 48.75 0 0.00 5 6.25 36 45.00 a detective 37 46.25 0 0.00 4 5.00 39 48.75 a Rich man 38 47.50 0 0.00 5 6.25 37 46.25 a room 7 8.75 0 0.00 52 65.00 21 26.25 a sudden, quick movement 30 37.50 0 0.00 1 1.25 49 61.25 a trick 36 45.00 0 0.00 5 6.25 39 48.75 a piece of paper 37 46.25 0 0.00 2 2.50 41 51.25 a book 33 41.25 0 0.00 30 37.50 17 21.25 a hollow voice 35 43.75 0 0.00 2 2.50 43 53.75 a cheque 53 66.25 0 0.00 22 27.50 5 6.25 a cheque 26 32.50 0 0.00 39 48.75 15 18.75 a little window 32 40.00 0 0.00 12 15.00 36 45.00 a millionaire 36 45.00 0 0.00 5 6.25 39 48.75 a roar 15 18.75 0 0.00 3 3.75 62 77.50 a unique experience 50 62.50 3 0.00 1 1.25 26 32.50 Total 777 42.23 3 0.163 236 12.83 824 44.78 Potential places=1840 Table 2B: Use of „a‟ by Tigrigna Speakers Places the % an % the % Ø % a bank 31 38.75 0 0.00 25 31.25 24 30.00 a month 60 75.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 20 25.00 a person 40 50.00 1 1.25 11 13.52.50 28 35.00 a tall old fellow 10 12.50 0 0.00 2 2.50 68 85.00 A screwed up ball 22 27.50 0 0.00 3 3.75 55 68.75 a terrible secret 50 62.50 0 0.00 0 0.00 30 37.50 a private room 26 32.50 0 0.00 22 27.50 32 40.00 a detective 44 55.00 0 0.00 2 2.50 34 42.50 A detective 42 52.50 0 0.00 8 10.00 30 37.50 a detective 43 53.75 0 0.00 8 10.00 29 36.25 a rich man 42 52.50 0 0.00 9 11.25 29 36.25 a room 6 7.50 0 0.00 54 67.50 20 25.00 a Sudden, quick movement 35 43.75 0 0.00 0 0.00 45 56.25 a trick 44 55.00 0 0.00 2 2.50 34 42.50 a piece of paper 43 53.75 0 0.00 1 1.25 36 45.00 a book 33 41.25 0 0.00 36 45.00 11 13.75 a hollow voice 45 56.25 1 1.25 2 2.50 32 40.00 a cheque 57 71.25 0 0.00 11 13.75 12 15.00 a cheque 30 37.50 0 0.00 38 47.50 12 15.00 a little window 30 37.50 0 0.00 14 17.50 36 45.00 a millionaire 50 62.50 0 0.00 1 1.25 29 36.25 a roar 10 12.50 0 0.00 3 3.75 67 83.75 a unique experience 51 63.75 5 6.25 8 10.00 16 20.00 Total 844 45.87 7 0.38 260 14.13 729 39.62 Glob. J. art soc. Sci. Edu. 038 Table 3A: Use of „an‟ by Amharic Speakers Places an % a % the % Ø % an irresponsible fool 42 52.50 0 0.00 1 1.25 37 46.25 an idea 45 56.25 1 1.25 4 5.00 30 37.50 to open an account 44 55.00 2 2.50 3 3.75 31 38.75 an honest and calm man 31 38.75 1 1.25 3 3.75 45 56.25 to open an account 51 63.75 2 2.50 5 6.25 22 27.50 to open an account 56 70.00 0 0.00 9 11.25 15 18.75 Total 269 56.04 6 1.25 25 5.21 180 37.50 Potential Places 6x80 = 480 Table 3B: Use of „an‟ by Tigrigna Speakers Places an % A % the % Ø % an irresponsible fool 48 60.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 32 40.00 an idea 51 63.75 0 0.00 5 6.25 24 30.00 To open an account 45 56.25 0 0.00 1 1.25 34 42.50 an honest and calm man 40 50.00 3 3.75 2 2.50 35 43.75 to open an account 59 73.75 0 0.00 5 6.25 16 20.00 to open an account 61 76.25 0 0.00 7 8.75 12 15.00 Total 304 63.33 3 0.63 20 4.17 153 31.88 Potential Places = 480 Here, we can safety conclude that the students have internalized the few rules of using articles with singular nouns that start with vowel sounds. Amharic speakers is better than that of the Tigrigna percentage score in „the impression that…‟ may be due speakers. to incomplete knowledge of what a clause is. d. Specification due to a phrase or clause 2. Insertion of the indefinite article „a‟ The definite article is used before a noun particularized The indefinite article „a‟ is used before countable singular by the addition of a phrase or clause as in „the ceiling of nouns or noun phrases; moreover, it is used in a number the bank‟ , „the counter‟ (which is/was) marked of phrases such as „it is a pity‟ „…keep a secret‟ „all of a „Accountant‟ etc. There were 7 instances of nouns sudden‟ etc. There were 23 potential places where the modified by a phrase and 2 instances of nouns modified indefinite article „a‟ is required in the test. Of the 23 b y a clause as shown in Table 1-A and B. potential places for the indefinite article „a‟, 20 potential In this case, 38.78% and 37.08% of the attempts by places are preceded by countable singular nouns and the Amharic and Tigrigna speakers respectively were remaining 3 are preceded by uncountable nouns. The correctly filled in with the definite article „the‟. 75.25% percentage scores for the correct insertion of „a‟ before correct insertion in „the door of a bank‟ by Tigrigna countable singular nouns or noun phrases and speakers is higher when compare with the 5% and 6.25% uncountable nouns are 42.19 and 42.50 respectively by correct insertions of „the‟ in „the impression that ….‟ and Amharic speakers and 45.06 and 51.25 respectively by in „the echo of a roar‟ respectively by both groups. The Tigrigna speakers. higher percentage score may be described to the The nouns other than the uncountable nouns- „a sudden, repetitive practice at the early stages of learning in saying quick movement‟, „a piece of paper‟ and „a hollow voice‟ like „open the door‟, „close the door‟ etc. but the least are countable. The percentages of inserting „a‟, „an‟, Ghebremuse 039 „the‟ and „Ø‟ in the potential places for the indefinite article „a‟ are shown in Table-2 A and B. 1. Nouns or noun phrases that are never preceded by In the case of „of a bank‟, „birr a month‟, is a screwed up any article ball‟, „had a terrible secret‟, „to a private room‟, „of a rich m an‟, „in a book‟, „in a hollow voice‟ , „draw a cheque‟, There were 30 potential places for the „null‟ article in the „me a book‟, „through a little window‟ and „of a roar‟ the text. Of these 30 potential places,14 nouns or noun indefinite article „a‟ is required because „a‟ is generally phrases are never preceded by any article because these used with the meaning of „one‟ but it does not matter nouns are tables, greetings, names of unique objects or which. In the case of „that a person‟ „a‟ is required nouns preceded by a member of a close set (adjective). because it is used with the meaning of „any‟. I was a This sub-category is also divided into : two. The first detective‟, „I am a detective‟, as if I were doing a trick‟, group consists of four nouns or noun phrases. They are: that I was a millionaire‟, it was a unique experience‟ „a‟ is m arked „accountant‟, „home‟, „good morning‟ and „God‟. required because „a‟ is used with a noun complement but In this case, the average percent of correct scores were this rule seems to have been partially understood by both 97.81 and 93.44 by Amharic and Tigrigna speakers g roups. r espectively. Although the total performance was not bad, their scores The second group consists of the ten nouns or nouns would be improved if the students were given enough phrases preceded by a number of a close set as is practice and were exposed to all the rules concerning the shown in Appendix 1-A and B. The average percentage use of articles. of correct scores were 99.62 and 98.87 by Amharic and Tigrigna speakers respectively. 3. Inserting of the indefinite article “an” 2. Nouns or noun phrases not preceded by any article in certain contexts. The indefinite article „an‟ is used before singular countable nouns that start with vowel sounds including Of the 30 potential places for „null‟ article in the test the sound of mute „h‟. There were six potential places passage, 16 nouns or noun phrases are not preceded by where the indefinite article „an‟ is required in the test. In any article because the nouns are used in unspecified this case, the percentages of correct insertions are 56.04 s ense. They are divided into three groups. and 63.33 by Amharic and Tigrigna speakers The first group consists of 3 mass nouns – water, money respectively. These were the highest of all the percentage and paper. The average percentages of correct scores in the test on English articles as is shown in Table responses for these mass nouns are 96.25 by Amharic 3 A and B. s peakers and 92.92 by Tigrigna speakers. Here, we can safely conclude that the students have The second group consists of 4 abstract nouns-business, internalized the few rules of using articles with singular surprise, misery and laughter. The average percentages n ouns that start with vowel sounds. of correct responses for these abstract nouns are 81.56 In the case of „had become an irresponsible fool‟ „had an by Amharic speakers and 73.69 by Tigrigna speakers. In idea‟, „ looked an honest and calm man‟ „an‟ is required this case, the average percentages of correct responses because it is used with noun complements after link are relatively low. In the case of „business‟ the verbs. In the case of „an honest and calm man‟ the percentages of incorrect responses are very low. In lowest percentages of correct scores may be due to the 28.75% attempts, the Amharic speakers inserted the complexity of the noun phrases in which the noun is indefinite article „a‟ and in 35.00% attempts, the Tigrigna p receded by two adjectives. speakers inserted the indefinite article „a‟. These reflect As is shown in Table 3, the percentage of correct that the students from both linguistic groups perceived attempts is relatively higher when the noun is not this noun as specified. When we compare the preceded by any adjective but slightly less when, the percentages of the correct responses in the unspecified noun is preceded by one adjective and still less when the abstract nouns with the specified abstract nouns, we noun is preceded by two adjectives. In the case of conclude that the students don‟t seem to understand the complex noun phrases, the students were often confused use of articles with unspecified and specified abstract with where to insert the indefinite article „an‟. The nouns. The students also show a tendency of inserting or percentages of dropping this article increases as the omitting definite article indiscriminately with these nouns. complexity of the sentence structure increases. Generally speaking, in the case of the 4 unspecified abstract nouns, the students tend to insert the indefinite Nouns or noun phrases not preceded by any article a rticle „a‟ incorrectly. The third group consists of 9 unspecified plural nouns or In this category, there are two sub-categories. They are:- noun phrases. They are six hundred birr, dragging feet, 1. Nouns or noun phrases that are never preceded by any article and six hundred Birr, six hundred and five birr, six hundred 2. Nouns or noun phrases not preceded by any article in birr, six hundred and five birr, chairs, tables and books. certain contexts. Glob. J. art soc. Sci. Edu. 040 Table 4: Occupations of Freshmen‟s parents (1986) Father Mother Occupation Number % Number % Doctors, managers, lawyers, engineers, University teachers 30 4.97 1 0.17 Instructors, (school) directors, journalists, pharmacists, accountants, salesmen, personals 42 6.95 14 2.32 Businessmen, merchants, traders, retailers 98 16.23 22 3.64 Office assistants, dressers, nurses, midwives 19 3.15 10 1.65 Hospital assistants, dressers, nurses, midwives 4 0.66 7 1.16 Mechanics, technicians, electricians, carpenter, weaver, sailor, driver, shoe maker 46 7.62 0 0 Workers- all kinds, soldiers and storekeepers 63 10.43 11 1.82 Farmers, priests 151 25.00 41 6.79 House wives 0 0.00 339 56.13 Miscellaneous (including retired persons) 51 8.44 7 1.16 No response 100 16.55 152 25.16 Total 604 100.00 604 100.00 The average percentages of correct responses are 94.44 mother tongue is one of the Ethiopian languages other by Amharic speakers and 87.22 by Tigrigna speakers. In than those mentioned above and 3.47% were students the case of „dragging feet‟ the Amharic speakers inserted who didn‟t give their responses. (The mother tongue the indefinite article „a‟ in 33.75% of the attempts while distribution among the students is shown in Appendix-3). the Tigrigna speakers inserted „a‟ in 42.50% of the attempts. In this case, the students either didn‟t Mother tongue, sex, and age group: The students were understand that dragging is a verbal adjective that requested to write their mother tongue, their sex, and age qualifies feet or didn‟t eternalize the rule of the use of and their responses were examined. So, out of the total article „a‟ which states that the indefinite article „a‟ is number (604), the distribution pattern of mother tongue used before singular countable nouns. The percentage of and sex is as follows: 27.26% male Tigrigna speakers, inserting „a‟, „an‟, the and „Ø „ article in the potential 9.11% female Tigrigna speakers; 40.94% male Amharic places for the „null‟ article are shown in Appendix 1-A speakers, 6.29% female Amharic speakers; 10.44% male and B. and 0.83% female speakers other than Tigrigna and Amharic but 5.13% did not give any response. Population Concerning the age groups, the students were found to The population consisted of 604 freshmen from Asmara belong to three main age groups. When we examine the University enrolled for the academic year 1985/86. The responses of 475 boys, 98 girls and 31 students who did information about the students and their family not give their responses, 67.91% were in the age group background was obtained from their responses to the of 15-20 years, 16.22% were in the age group of 21-25 questionnaire prepared for this purpose. years, and 6.46% (excluding the 5.13% no response) w ere in the age group of 31-35 years Mother tongue distribution: Each student was asked to When we take into account both the age and sex, name the language which he/she spoke first as a child. 68.37% of the females and 71.79% of the males were in As it was found that the students came from two main the age group of 15-20 years, 20.41% of the females and linguistic groups. Out of the total number-(604) 49.17% 16.42% of the males were in the age group of 21-25 were students whose mother tongue is Amharic; and years, and 7.14% of the females and 6.74% of the males 37.42% were students whose mother tongue is Tigrigna, were in the age group of 26-30 years. The remaining and 6.45% were students whose mother tongue is percentage of females and males (excluding response) Oromo. In addition to this, 3.49% were students whose falls in the age group of 31-45 years. More than half of this group were Tigrigna speakers and this may be due Ghebremuse 041 Table 5: Educational Background of Freshmen's Family (1986) Levels Grades Father Mother Brothers Sisters Number % Number % Number % Number % Highly Educated above 16 5 0.82 0 0 6 1.25 3 0.82 Educated 13-16 47 7.78 10 1.65 122 25.47 59 16.25 Semi-educated 7-12 136 22.5 59 9.77 257 53.65 190 52.34 Literate 1-6 233 38.57 267 44.2 91 18.99 111 30.58 Non-literate 0 64 10.6 138 22.85 6 1.25 3 0.82 No response 125 20.69 120 19.86 - - 0.82 Total 604 100.99 604 98.33 479 100.61 363 100.79 Table 6: Use of Mother Tongue, English and Other Ethiopian Foreign Languages in Different Domains by University Freshmen, 1986 (in percentage) Tigrigna Speakers (226) Amharic Speakers (297) Other Ethiopian Language Speakers (60) n n e stropS gnippohS sweN reyarP slevoN smliF sgnoS noitasrevnoCizageM/repapsweN se sretteL gnidaeR lareneG stropS gnippohS sweN reyarP slevoN smliF sgnoS noitasrevnoCizageM/repapsweN se sretteL gnidaeR lareneG stropS gnippohS sweN reyarP slevoN smliF sgnoS noitasrevnoCnizageM/repapsweN s sretteL gnidaeR lareneG Language(s) Use Used MT 38 62 6 48 7 2 15 33 3 32 7 77 7 29 63 21 5 37 51 20 57 22 2 5 3 10 0 0 7 2 2 2 0 MTAE 23 21 24 11 8 1 22 21 14 19 9 1 5 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 3 2 3 9 2 2 8 5 2 2 0 A 23 9 10 7 8 2 6 8 11 9 10 - - - - - - - - - - - 57 58 43 57 25 13 35 53 27 53 43 T - - - - - - - - - - - 9 15 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 NTAE 3 2 34 2 26 3 24 13 28 11 20 1 1 4 0 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 0 2 10 0 2 0 3 5 3 5 2 MTE 2 1 3 3 3 0 4 5 3 10 4 10 6 53 5 56 12 40 32 65 35 50 - - - - - - - - - - - EA 3 1 10 1 15 2 8 6 19 8 15 - - - - - - - - - - - 3 3 27 0 55 12 27 13 45 22 30 EA 2 1 11 1 23 56 12 4 12 3 24 1 1 7 3 18 63 10 7 8 3 19 0 0 2 0 7 57 7 7 8 3 12 OF & EL 2 1 2 23 7 27 9 4 7 5 3 1 2 1 11 1 15 4 3 2 2 1 3 18 12 14 5 15 12 13 12 10 7 No response 4 2 4 3 7 6 3 3 8 - - 4 16 3 4 4 4 3 1 7 2 - - - 4 1 1 - 1 1 6 Symbols Used: MT = Mother Tongue T = Tigrigna MTE = Mother Tongue & English MTA = Mother Tongue & Amharic MTEA = Mother Tongue & Amharic EA = English & Amharic A= Amharic and English E = English OF & EL= Other Foreign & Ethiopian Language Glob. J. art soc. Sci. Edu. 042 the favourable situation of attending extension classes at was French, and 20.20% showed that their third Asmara university which is situated in Tigrigna speaking preference was Italian. 19.54% of the students were also area. (Mother tongue, sex, and age group of the students in favour of Arabic as the third language to be learnt. In is shown in Appendix-2). addition to these four languages, about 10 Ethiopian and 11 foreign languages wished to be learnt were listed as Occupations of freshmen‟s parents: The students first or second or third preference. The complete data on were requested to write the occupations of their fathers language wished to be learnt by the students is shown in and their responses show that their fathers are engaged Appendix-4. in the following occupations: 25% in farming and serving the churches, 16.23% private business, 10.43% in Attributes of the first three most preferred language factories, military service etc., 7.62% in technical work, 6.95% in various rank professions such as teaching, The students were asked to indicate which of the ten journalism, management etc., 5.97% in some of the top qualities they recognize in the first three languages of status professions as doctors, managers, lawyers, their preference as the most important (see No.10 and 16 engineers, and university teachers/lecturers. The above in the questionnaire). In number 10, the list of attributes is mentioned percentages clearly indicate that most of the given. In number 16, eight statements-four positively and freshmen came from families who are engaged in four negatively worded statements were given to elicit the d ifferent occupations far from rank or status professions. responses of the students. These statements are Moreover, 56.13% of the students‟ mothers are house followed by a 5-point scale ranging - from complete wives. In addition to this, 6.79% of the mothers are agreement to complete disagreement. The students were occupied in farming. It is surprising that 25.16% of the asked to write 1-5 in the appropriate place on the scale. students did not give any response concerning their So, the main qualities which are recognized in the first mothers‟ occupations and the investigator is inclined to preference of their second language learning i.e., English conclude that these mothers are not employed at all and are as follows: useful for receiving education in Eritrea they must be house-wives and farmers. Freshmen 9.16% out of 26.50%, useful to pursue studies outside parents‟ occupations are good indications that the Ethiopia 8.11% out of 26.50%, and useful for getting a students could not receive necessary guidance and j ob 1.45% out of 26.50%. encouragement in their education. (freshmen parents‟ The main qualities which are recognized in the second occupations are shown in Table 4). preference i.e., French are as follows: useful to pursue studies outside Eritrea 8.66% out of 23.28%, sweet Educational background of freshmen‟s family: The 2.53% out of 23.28%, and pleasant 2.15% out of 23.28%. students were asked to write their parents qualification, and The main qualities which are recognized in the third their responses show that their fathers have the following preference i.e., Italian are as follows: useful to pursue educational background: 10.6% non-literate or 0 grade, 38.57% studies outside Ethiopia 2.75% out of 13.02%, sweet literate or grades 1-6, 22.50% semi-educated-grades 7-12, 2 .53% out of 13.02%, and pleasant 1.71% out of 1302%. 7.78% educated-grades 13-16, and 0.82% highly educated From the data given above, we can infer that the first above grade 16. However, 20.69% of the students did not give responses which implies that their fathers did not receive proper preference i.e., English is learnt mainly for its education. Nearly half of their fathers are uneducated and this instrumental motivational reasons while the second and may have strong impact in learning second language. It is third preferences i.e., French and Italian respectively are unlikely for most of these students to get books probably used learnt for instrumental as well as integrative motivational b y their fathers. reasons. The data concerning the attributes of the first Concerning the students‟ mothers, 88.58% of them are below three most preferred languages is shown in Appendix-5. semi-educated-grades 0-6. There was no possibility for mothers to help the students in learning English as a second language Use of Mother tongue, English and other Ethiopian even in the elementary grades. The students may get moral and Foreign languages in different domains support and material incentive from their brothers and sisters who are in better positions than their fathers and mothers. Here, 79.12% of their brothers and 68.59% of their sisters are The students were asked to write the language they use educated or semi-educated who completed-grades 7-16. The in various activities. When the investigator examined the complete picture of the educational background of freshmen is languages used in various activities by Tigrigna shown in Table 5. speakers, Tigrigna as a mother tongue prevails mainly in shopping, sports, prayer, conversation, and letter writing. Language(s) wished to be learnt by Asmara Tigrigna speakers used English mainly for films, general University Freshman reading, and reading English novels. Tigrigna speakers also used Amharic in sports, generally in reading The students were asked to list, in order of preference, because there are more publications available in Amharic those languages which they wished to learn. Of the 604 than in Tigrigna. When the investigators examined the students, 67.05% showed that their first preference was language used by Amharic speakers, Amharic prevails in English, 37.58% showed that their second preference