Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa Editor Development of Oral Cancer Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies 123 Development of Oral Cancer Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa Editor Development of Oral Cancer Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies Editor Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa Department of Basic Medical Science Qatar University/College of Medicine Doha Qatar ISBN 978-3-319-48053-4 ISBN 978-3-319-48054-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48054-1 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017945404 © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface Oral cancer is one of the most common noncommunicable diseases worldwide with an estimated 300,000 new cases and 145,000 deaths in 2012. Oral cancers occur in increased frequency especially in developing countries compared to developed ones. The etiology of human oral cancer varies, but a wide range of risk factors can be determined such as gene mutations, environmental conditions, and lifestyle including tobacco use and excessive alcohol consumption, in addition to physical inactivity. Based on the importance of this topic for human life especially in devel- oping countries, I feel it is my duty to present this book which addresses different aspects of oral cancer as a preventive step toward the alleviation of the malignancy. Thus, I am thankful to all the authors who have joined me in this project and enriched the subject with their valuable contributions. The findings of these chapters are very interesting and contribute to our understanding of the complexity of human oral carcinogenesis and its predominant risk factors, in addition to outlining important prevention strategies to fight this disease. This book comprises 12 chapters which cover the most important topics related to human oral cancer. The first chapter aims to provide a synopsis of the epidemiol- ogy of oral cancer globally and to highlight the main characteristics of this disease, which was elegantly described by Dr. Kujan. The second chapter was written by Drs. Al-Dewik and Qoronfleh in which the authors review the most common molec- ular genetic alterations at the genomic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic levels. They outline changes in tumor suppressor genes, oncogenes, genomic instability, mito- chondrial DNA mutations, noncoding RNAs, and loss of heterozygosity in human oral cancer. Chapter 3 describes the causes and diagnosis of oral cancer and its treatment by designing novel drugs for human cancers in general and oral cancer in particular; this chapter was tackled by Dr. Khan. Chapter 4 discusses one of the most important risk factors for human oral cancer which is smoking wherein Drs. Abro and Pervez review the role of different types of tobacco use in human oral cancer. Chapter 5 reviews another major risk factor of human oral cancer which is alcohol intake; in this chapter Dr. Kujan and his colleagues discuss stylishly the role of alcohol-containing mouthwashes and its contribution to the increased risk of oral cancer development. In Chap. 6 the authors describe the presence and role of high- - risk human papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr virus in human oral cancer; more significantly, Dr. Al Moustafa and his colleagues discuss the cooperation outcome of these viruses in human oral carcinogenesis. In Chap. 7, Dr. Jaloudi and his v vi Preface colleagues review the role of bacterial and fungal infection in the global incidence of human oral cancers. In Chap. 8, Drs. Pervez and Abro review the role of chewing habits in human oral carcinogenesis. Chapter 9 describes the outcome of qat chew- ing and mate consumption in human oral diseases including cancer; this chapter was written by Kassab and Dr. Al Moustafa. Chapter 10 elucidates the concept behind photodynamic diagnosis/therapy along with their elements and cell death mecha- nisms; additionally, it provides a glimpse at the status of this technique from a clini- cal point of view; this work is presented by Dr. Abdel Gaber. Chapter 11 was prepared by Drs. Bawadi and Faris, and it outlines the important role of nutrition in human oral carcinogenesis; in addition, this chapter discusses the power of nutrition as a possible oral cancer prevention tool. Finally, Dr. Malki and his colleagues focus on prevention strategies in Chap. 12; they elaborate and expand on common risk factors and how to decrease chances of developing oral cancer. We believe that the chapters presented in this volume provide a global overview of different approaches in understanding risk factors and prevention strategies of human oral cancer. They are intended to update scientists in the field about novel developments and provide a knowledge base for medical students, clinicians, and researchers contemplating to engage in this area of scientific research. Nevertheless, it should be noted that this book is not an exhaustive repertoire of all known human oral cancer risks. Rather, we admittedly made subjective choices to illustrate the diversity of these factors and their instrumental role in human oral cancer. Doha, Qatar Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa Contents 1 Human Oral Cancer (Epidemiology and Characteristic) . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Omar Kujan 2 Novel Developments in the Molecular Genetic Basis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Nader I Al-Dewik and M. Walid Qoronfleh 3 Oral Cancer: After the Completion of the Human Genome Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 A. Hameed Khan 4 Smoking and Oral Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Brooj Abro and Shahid Pervez 5 Alcohol and Oral Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Omar Kujan, Abdulhameed Husain, and Camile S. Farah 6 High-Risk Human Papillomaviruses and Epstein-Barr Virus Presence and Crosstalk in Human Oral Carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa, Farhan S. Cyprian, Noor Al-Antary, and Amber Yasmeen 7 Oral Cancer: Epidemiology and Infections (Bacterial and Fungal) Global Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Mohammed Jaloudi, Maria Aamir, Mohammad Ahmad Lahej Alfelasi, and Jihad Kanbar 8 Oral Cancer and Chewing Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Shahid Pervez and Brooj Abro 9 Role of Qat Chewing and Mate Consumption in Human Oral Carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Amal Kassab and Ala-Eddin Al Moustafa 10 Photodynamic Diagnosis and Therapy for Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Cancers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Sara A. Abdel Gaber vii viii Contents 11 Role of Nutrition in Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers: From Etiology to Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Hiba Bawadi and “Mo’ez Al-Islam” Faris 12 Prevention of Oral Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Ahmed Mohamed Malki, Samira Bou Raad, and Rasha Abu- El- Ruz Human Oral Cancer (Epidemiology 1 and Characteristic) Omar Kujan 1.1 Introduction Oral cancer is a major health burden particularly in the developing world where most of the cases are diagnosed [1]. More than 300,000 new patients are estimated to be diagnosed with oral and oropharyngeal cancer in 2012, and 50% of these cases will die annually [2]. The WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) defined oral and oropharyngeal cancer as the malignancy emerging from the anatomic sites that correspond to the rubrics C00–C10 of the ICD-10 [3]. Specifically, the involved oral anatomic subsites include the lips, buccal mucosa, alveolar ridge and gingiva, retromolar trigone, anterior two-thirds of the tongue (anterior to the circumvallate papillae), floor of the mouth and hard palate. The oropharynx (middle part of the pharynx) consists of the soft palate, base (or posterior one-third) of the tongue, palatine tonsils, palatoglossal folds, valleculae and posterior pharyngeal wall. Traditionally oral cancer was sometimes used to designate head and neck cancer that genuinely covers wider anatomical region with more heterogeneous nature. Though, for the purpose of this chapter, lip/mouth and oropharyngeal cancers have been combined and termed as oral and oropharyngeal cancer (OPC). Also, the cases originated from either nasopharynx or other pharynxes were excluded to distinguish it from the head and neck cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of malignancy that is diagnosed in the oral and oropharyngeal region with more than 95% [4]. The data presented in this chapter are mainly derived from GLOBOCAN database which is a project governed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer O. Kujan School of Dentistry/Oral Health Centre of Western Australia, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Avenue, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia Faculty of Dentistry, Hama University, Hama, Syrian Arab Republic e-mail: [email protected] © Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1 A.-E. Al Moustafa (ed.), Development of Oral Cancer, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48054-1_1 2 O. Kujan (IARC) to provide contemporary estimates of the incidence of mortality and preva- lence from major types of cancer, at national level, for 184 countries of the world [5]. An international variation in the OPC prevalence rates exists and that corre- sponds to significant heterogeneity in trends by subsite, country and sex [6]. For example, oral and oropharyngeal cancer is ranked the 11th most common prevalent cancer among the top 20 malignancy in the body for both genders, all ages [7]. Whereas, the head and neck cancer is ranked the seventh most common type of malignancy with over 600,000 new cases diagnosed per annum [8]. Interestingly, oral cancer is the third most common type of cancer in India, where it is, in fact, ranked the most common type of cancer among male Indian [9]. Moreover, two- thirds of the diagnosed oral cancer cases are reported globally in low-to-middle- income countries literally the Southeast region of Asia [7]. This increasing incidence is mainly due to the social habit of chewing areca nut/betel quid in addition to the traditional major risk factors of tobacco and alcohol consumptions and, increas- ingly, infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) [4]. This chapter aimed to provide a synopsis of the epidemiology of oral cancer globally and to highlight the major characteristics. 1.2 Oral Cancer Epidemiology 1.2.1 Incidence and Mortality According to the most recent GLOBOCAN estimates, worldwide in 2012, there were approximately 300,373 new cases of lip/oral cavity cancer (age-standardized rate [age standardized to the world population] or ASR [W], 4.0 per 100,000). The estimated age-standardized incidence, prevalence and mortality rates of oral cancer also vary among countries in different regions (Figs. 1.1–1.3) [5]. Notably, the highest estimated ASR (W) of oral and oropharyngeal cancer is found in the World Health Organization (WHO) Southeast Asian region (6.4 per 100,000), followed by the WHO European region (4.6 per 100,000), the WHO Eastern Mediterranean region (4.6 per 100,000), the WHO Americas region (4.1 per 100,000), the WHO African region (2.7 per 100,000) and the WHO Western Pacific region (2.0 per 100,000). Worldwide mortality estimates for 2012 include an ASR (W) of 2.7 per 100,000 for oral and oropharyngeal cancer [5]. Surprisingly, the highest ever incidence of OPC is found in Melanesia (ASR (W) 22.9 per 100,000 in men and 16.0 per 100,000 in women) [5]. Figure 1.4 shows the ASR rates of incidence and 5-year prevalence of OPC esti- mated in 2012 of the highest 20 countries over the world where India is the highest. In the United States, based on the database of the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER), it is estimated that more than 30,000 new cases of oral cancer are to be diagnosed in the United States in 2016, with 6500 deaths attribut- able to the disease sharing a 3.4% of the whole cancer burden [10]. In other words, the ASR incidence of OPC is 15.6 per 100,000 for male and 6.1 per 100,000 for female [10, 11] Tables 1.1 and 1.2.