Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science - 33 DESIGN AND OPERATING GUIDE FOR AQUACULTURE SEAWATER SYSTEMS- SECOND EDITION DEVELOPMENTS IN AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES SCIENCE The following volumes are still available: 9. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT FOR POND FISH CULTURE By C.E. Boyd 1982 xii + 318 pages 17. DISEASE DIAGNOSIS AND CONTROL IN NORTH AMERICAN MARINE AQUACULTURE Edited by C.J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner 1988 xv + 412 pages 19. CLAM MARICULTURE IN NORTH AMERICA Edited by J.J. Manzi and M. Castagna 1989 x + 462 pages 22. FRONTIERS OF SHRIMP RESEARCH Edited by RE DeLoach, W.J. Dougherty and M.A. Davidson 1991 viii + 294 pages 23. MARINE SHRIMP CULTURE: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES By A. W. Fast and L.J. Lester 1992 xvi + 862 pages 24. THE MUSSEL MYTILUS: ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, GENETICS AND CULTURE By E. Cosling 1992 xiv + 589 pages 25. MODERN METHODS OF AQUACULTURE IN JAPAN (2ND REVISED EDITION) Edited by H. Ikenoue and T. Kafuku 1992 xiv + 274 pages 26. PROTOZOAN PARASITES OF FISHES By J. Lom and I. Dykova 1992 xii + 316 pages 27. AQUACULTURE WATER REUSE SYSTEMS: ENGINEERING DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT Edited by M. B. Timmons and T. Losordo 28. FRESHWATER FISH CULTURE IN CHINA: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE Edited by J. Mathias and S. Li 1994 xvi + 446 pages 29. PRINCIPLES OF SALMONID CULTURE Edited by W. Pennell and B.A. Barton 1996 xxx + 1040 pages 30. STRIPED BASS AND OTHER MORONE CULTURE Edited by R. M. Harrell 1997 xx + 366 pages 31. BIOLOGY OF THE HARD CLAM Edited by J.N. Kraeuter and M. Castagna 2001 xix + 751 pages 32. EDIBLE SEA URCHINS: BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY Edited by J. M. Lawrence 2001 xv + 419 pages 33. DESIGN AND OPERATING GUIDE FOR AQUACULTURE SEAWATER SYSTEMS (2nd EDITION) by J.E. Huguenin and J. Colt 2002 viii + 328 pages Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science - 33 DESIGN AND OPERATING GUIDE FOR AQUACULTURE SEAWATER SYSTEMS - SECOND EDITION JOHN E. HUGUENIN Falmouth, Massachusetts U.S.A. JOHN COLT Northwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service Seattle, Washington U.S.A. 2002 ELSEVIER Amsterdam - London - New York - Oxford - Paris - Shannon - Tokyo ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 RO. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands (cid:14)9 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. This work is protected under copyright by Elsevier Science, and the following terms and conditions apply to its use: Photocopying Single photocopies of single chapters may be made for personal use as allowed by national copyright laws. Permission of the Publisher and payment of a fee is required for all other photocopying, including multiple or systematic copying, copying for advertising or promotional purposes, resale, and all forms of document delivery. Special rates are available for educational institutions that wish to make photocopies for non-profit educational classroom use. 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Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. First edition 1989 Second edition 2002 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record from the Library of Congress has been applied for. ISBN 0 444 50577 6 The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). Printed in The Netherlands Contents Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................ Chapter 2. Problem definition and establishing requirements .......................... 5 2.1 Design process ........................................................................ 5 2.2 Defining objectives .................................................................... 6 2.3 Quantifying requirements .............................................................. 7 2.4 Production cycle ...................................................................... 9 2.5 Production modeling .................................................................. 12 2.5.1 Growth models .............................................................. 12 2.5.2 Mortality models ............................................................ 13 2.5.3 Length-weight relationships ................................................. 13 2.6 Types of systems ...................................................................... 16 2.7 System carrying capacity .............................................................. 20 2.7.1 Ammonia ................................................................... 22 2.7.2 Nitrite ....................................................................... 24 2.7.3 Nitrate ...................................................................... 24 2.7.4 Dissolved oxygen ............................................................ 24 2.7.5 Carbon dioxide .............................................................. 25 2.7.6 Hydrogen sulfide ............................................................ 25 2.7.7 Total gas pressure ............................................................ 27 2.7.8 pH .......................................................................... 27 2.7.9 Residual chlorine ............................................................ 27 2.7.10 Temperature ................................................................. 28 2.7.11 Salinity ..................................................................... 28 2.7.12 Heavy metals ................................................................ 28 2.7.13 Biocides ..................................................................... 28 2.8 Carrying capacity guidelines ........................................................... 29 2.9 Design requirements ................................................................... 39 2.9.1 Water flow .................................................................. 41 2.9.2 Rearing volume/area ........................................................ 42 2.9.3 Rearing container size and number ........................................... 43 2.10 Constraints ............................................................................ 43 Chapter 3. Site considerations .......................................................... 47 3.1 Marine conditions ..................................................................... 47 3.2 Terrestrial conditions .................................................................. 54 3.3 Permitting ............................................................................ 54 3.4 Site selection .......................................................................... 56 Chapter 4. Seawater sources ........................................................... 59 4.1 Options and considerations ............................................................ 59 VI 4.2 Artificial seawater ..................................................................... 60 4.3 Seawater wells ........................................................................ 62 4.4 Marine intakes ........................................................................ 66 Chapter 5. System planviews and elevations ............................................ 73 5.1 Generic system ........................................................................ 73 5.2 Elevations and head tanks ............................................................. 75 5.3 Intake and pump house considerations .................................................. 76 5.4 Discharge considerations .............................................................. 79 Chapter 6. Piping design and calculations .............................................. 81 6.1 Major tradeoffs ........................................................................ 81 6.2 Biofouling control ..................................................................... 82 6.3 Water hammer ........................................................................ 86 6.4 Frictional losses in pipes ............................................................... 87 6.5 Frictional losses in fittings ............................................................. 93 6.6 Open channel flow .................................................................... 93 6.7 Momentum in pipes ................................................................... 97 Chapter 7. Pump Selection ............................................................. 101 7.1 Pump options ......................................................................... 101 7.2 Generic centrifugal pump .............................................................. 104 7.3 NPSH and dynamic head .............................................................. 108 7.4 Matching system and pump ............................................................ 110 Chapter 8. Materials selection .......................................................... 117 8.1 Biological constraints ................................................................. 117 8.2 Seawater constraints ................................................................... 120 8.3 Piping materials ....................................................................... 122 8.4 Pump materials ....................................................................... 124 8.5 Marine concrete ....................................................................... 126 8.6 Problem areas ......................................................................... 126 Chapter 9. Seawater flow control ....................................................... 129 9.1 Gravity flow .......................................................................... 129 9.2 Water level control .................................................................... 131 9.3 Control of flow rate ................................................................... 133 9.4 Flow measurement .................................................................... 134 Chapter 10. Suspended solids removal ................................................... 137 10.1 Considerations, tradeoffs and options ................................................... 137 10.2 Cartridge filters ....................................................................... 139 10.3 Diatomaceous earth filters ............................................................. 140 10.4 Filter bags ............................................................................ 141 10.5 Centrifuges and cyclones .............................................................. 141 10.6 Sand filters ............................................................................ 141 10.7 Microscreens .......................................................................... 144 10.8 Sedimentation ......................................................................... 145 VII Chapter 11. Heating and cooling ........................................................ 151 11.1 Setting requirements ................................................................... 151 11.2 Heat exchangers ....................................................................... 154 11.3 Problem areas ......................................................................... 157 Chapter 12. Aeration and degassing ..................................................... 163 12.1 Aeration system requirements .......................................................... 163 12.2 Gravity aerators ....................................................................... 163 12.2.1 Packed columns ............................................................. 165 12.2.2 Perforated tray aerator ....................................................... 168 12.2.3 Lattice aerator ............................................................... 168 12.3 Submerged aerators ................................................................... 168 12.3.1 Absorption efficiency ........................................................ 171 12.3.2 Blower selection ............................................................. 173 12.3.3 Pumping and mixing ......................................................... 175 12.4 Gas supersaturation and degassing ..................................................... 178 12.5 Removal of other gases ................................................................ 180 Chapter 13. Disinfection ................................................................. 183 13.1 Considerations and options ............................................................ 183 13.2 Chemical compounds .................................................................. 184 13.3 Ozone ................................................................................ 187 13.4 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation ............................................................. 190 Chapter 14. Alarms, monitoring and automatic control systems ......................... 193 14.1 Characteristics and options ............................................................ 193 14.2 Alarm points .......................................................................... 195 14.3 Automatic control ..................................................................... 197 Chapter 15. Water recycling ............................................................. 201 15.1 Setting requirements and options ....................................................... 201 15.2 Nitrification and biofilters ............................................................. 202 15.3 Foam fractionation .................................................................... 206 15.4 Activated carbon and ion exchange ..................................................... 207 15.5 Algae ................................................................................. 210 Chapter 16. Wet laboratory areas ....................................................... 211 16.1 General considerations and trade-offs .................................................. 211 16.2 Indoor areas ........................................................................... 212 16.3 Outdoor areas ......................................................................... 215 Chapter 17. Construction considerations ................................................ 217 17.1 Construction arrangements ............................................................. 217 17.2 Construction cost estimating ........................................................... 217 17.3 Design changes ....................................................................... 219 17.4 Installation of seawater lines ........................................................... 219 17.5 Start-up ............................................................................... 220 VIII Chapter 18. Operational considerations ................................................. 223 18.1 Operating procedures .................................................................. 223 18.2 Assignment of responsibilities ......................................................... 224 18.3 Spares and redundancy ................................................................ 224 18.4 Preventive maintenance ................................................................ 226 18.5 Monitoring and control ................................................................ 226 18.6 Operational problem areas ............................................................. 228 Chapter 19. Putting it all together ....................................................... 233 Chapter 20. Summary commandments .................................................. 249 References ................................................................................. 253 Appendices ................................................................................. 263 A Conversions, definitions and seawater properties ........................................ 264 A- 1 Conversion factors ........................................................... 264 A-2 Definitions .................................................................. 265 A-3 Seawater properties as a function of temperature and salinity .................. 269 B Flow-through seawater system bibliography ............................................ 272 C Reuse seawater system bibliography ................................................... 276 D Water quality bibliography ............................................................. 281 E Biofouling bibliography ............................................................... 284 F Materials bibliography ................................................................. 287 G Suspended solids removal bibliography ................................................. 291 H Temperature control bibliography ...................................................... 295 I Aeration and degassing bibliography ................................................... 298 J Disinfection bibliography .............................................................. 306 K Culture unit shape, size and flow pattern/hydraulics bibliography ....................... 309 L Feeder bibliography ................................................................... 314 M Indexes for equipment and supplies .................................................... 320 N Computer data search ................................................................. 322 N-1 Traditional fee-based searches ................................................ 322 N-2 Internet sources .............................................................. 323 N-2.1 Governmental sites (and sites with a lot of free information) .......... 323 N-2.2 Non-governmental sites .............................................. 324 N-2.3 Document delivery services .......................................... 324 N-2.4 E-mail alerting service ............................................... 324 N-2.5 Society web sites .................................................... 325 N-2.6 On-line journals ..................................................... 325 N-3 Aquaculture information lists ................................................. 325 Subject Index .............................................................................. 327 Chapter 1 Introduction There is a strong and broad-based need from many educational, research and commercial organizations and individuals for information on the planning, design, construction and operations of seawater systems (salinities from freshwater to brines) with flow rates in the range of 10-1000 gallons per minute (40-4000 liters per minute). While the objectives of these systems vary widely, they all depend on a common technological and biological database. Since the seawater system is usually only a means to an end, most potential users have little prior practical experience or technical knowledge in this area. Practical information on seawater systems for culturing purposes tends to be fragmented and not readily available in usable form. Most conventional engineering experience is with marine systems which are orders of magnitude larger. This technology is often not readily scaled down, or directly useable and, more than likely, prohibitively expensive. Unfortunately, neither a good understanding of the biology nor the engineering alone is likely to result in a practical system. Biologists generally do not understand the mechanical and hydraulic aspects, engineers usually do not sufficiently appreciate the biological requirements, and usually neither appreciate the economic and regulatory constraints that can heavily influence decisions. In short, because success depends on a blend of expertise, avoidable mistakes with seawater systems are common. While many may claim expertise, there are, in fact, few experienced bioengineers available and they tend to be associated with small consulting companies specializing in these matters. Bioengineers generally spend much of their time 'educating' the user or client to the tradeoffs and consequences of major-system decisions. Not uncommonly, major-system decisions have already been made and fixed prior to seeking bioengineering assistance. This can be a serious problem. In addition, this bioengineering expertise may be either unavailable or unaffordable to many potential users. While considerable knowledge and experience has been gained with the design, construction, and operations of seawater culture systems, this accumulated experience has been very poorly documented and is therefore not readily available. In addition, much of this knowledge has been learned the hard way by trial and error. Since communications are poor, the same mistakes tend to be made over and over again. This book is intended to fill these gaps and hopefully reduce seawater systems problems. For simple systems and conditions, this book may be completely adequate. For more complex systems or conditions, this book may avoid the expensive mistakes often made by users early in a project and greatly reduce the 'user education' phase of system design. Even with this book as a guide, many projects will be sufficiently complex to require the user to seek outside technical expertise. There are usually a number of sources of 'free' technical help, such as universities, equipment manufacturers, or various governmental