DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE LAW OF WAR MANUAL JUNE 2015 OFFICE OF GENERAL COUNSEL DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE FOREWORD The law of war is of fundamental importance to the Armed Forces of the United States. The law of war is part of who we are. George Washington, as Commander in Chief of the Continental Army, agreed with his British adversary that the Revolutionary War would be “carried on agreeable to the rules which humanity formed” and “to prevent or punish every breach of the rules of war within the sphere of our respective commands.” During the Civil War, President Lincoln approved a set of “Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field,” which inspired other countries to adopt similar codes for their armed forces, and which served as a template for international codifications of the law of war. After World War II, U.S. military lawyers, trying thousands of defendants before military commissions did, in the words of Justice Robert Jackson, “stay the hand of vengeance and voluntarily submit their captive enemies to the judgment of law” in “one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason.” Reflecting on this distinctive history, one Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff observed that “[t]he laws of war have a peculiarly American cast.” And it is also true that the laws of war have shaped the U.S. Armed Forces as much as they have shaped any other armed force in the world. The law of war is a part of our military heritage, and obeying it is the right thing to do. But we also know that the law of war poses no obstacle to fighting well and prevailing. Nations have developed the law of war to be fundamentally consistent with the military doctrines that are the basis for effective combat operations. For example, the self-control needed to refrain from violations of the law of war under the stresses of combat is the same good order and discipline necessary to operate cohesively and victoriously in battle. Similarly, the law of war’s prohibitions on torture and unnecessary destruction are consistent with the practical insight that such actions ultimately frustrate rather than accomplish the mission. This manual reflects many years of labor and expertise, on the part of civilian and military lawyers from every Military Service. It reflects the experience of this Department in applying the law of war in actual military operations, and it will help us remember the hard- learned lessons from the past. Understanding our duties imposed by the law of war and our rights under it is essential to our service in the nation’s defense. Stephen W. Preston General Counsel of the Department of Defense ii PREFACE This manual is a Department of Defense (DoD)-wide resource for DoD personnel – including commanders, legal practitioners, and other military and civilian personnel – on the law of war. This manual has many distinguished antecedents that have provided important guidance to the U.S. Armed Forces. For example, General Order No. 100, the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, commonly known as the Lieber Code, was prepared by Professor Francis Lieber and approved by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War in 1863.1 A similar code related to naval warfare titled The Law and Usages of War at Sea: A Naval War Code was prepared by then-Captain Charles H. Stockton and approved by President William McKinley in 1900.2 The War Department published instructions for the armed land forces of the United States in a 1914 manual titled Rules of Land Warfare, which was updated in 1917, 1934, and 1940.3 After World War II, in connection with U.S. ratification of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, the Department of the Navy published Naval Warfare Information Publication 10- 2, Law of Naval Warfare, in 1955,4 and the Department of the Army published Field Manual 27- 10, The Law of Land Warfare, in 1956, which was updated in 1976.5 The Department of the Army also published pamphlets on international law applicable in peace and war in the 1960s, and, in 1979, an updated version of the pamphlet on the law of peace.6 The Department of the Air Force published in 1976 Air Force Pamphlet 110-31, International Law – The Conduct of Armed Conflict and Air Operations, which was updated in 1980.7 More recently, the Judge Advocate General of the Air Force’s School has published a manual titled Air Force Operations and the Law in 2002, with new editions in 2009 and 2014.8 The Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast 1 E. D. Townsend, Assistant Adjutant General, General Orders No. 100, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, Apr. 24, 1863, reprinted in INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD (Government Printing Office, 1898). 2 John D. Long, Secretary of the Navy, General Orders No. 551, The Laws and Usages of War at Sea, Jun. 27, 1900, reprinted as Appendix I in U.S. Naval War College, International Law Discussions, 1903: The United States Naval War Code of 1900, 101 (1904). 3 War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, Rules of Land Warfare (Apr. 25, 1914); War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, Rules of Land Warfare (Apr. 25, 1914 with Changes Nos. 1 and 2, corrected to Apr. 15, 1917); War Department, Basic Field Manual, Volume VII, Military Law, Part Two: Rules of Land Warfare (Jan. 2, 1934); War Department Field Manual 27-10, Rules of Land Warfare (Oct. 1, 1940). 4 Department of the Navy, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Naval Warfare Information Publication 10-2, Law of Naval Warfare (Sept. 1955), reprinted as Appendix in ROBERT W. TUCKER, THE LAW OF WAR AND NEUTRALITY AT SEA (U.S. Naval War College International Law Studies, Volume 50, 1955). 5 Department of the Army Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare (Jul. 18, 1956 with Change 1, Jul. 15, 1976). 6 Department of the Army Pamphlet 27-161-2, II International Law (Oct. 23, 1962); Department of the Army Pamphlet 27-161-1, I International Law: The Law of Peace (Sept. 1, 1979). 7 Department of the Air Force Pamphlet 110-31, International Law – The Conduct of Armed Conflict and Air Operations (Nov. 19, 1976). iii Guard have published several editions of The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations starting in 1987 and most recently in 2007.9 Helpful annotated supplements have also been published.10 In addition to these major publications, DoD components have produced many other publications that have supported DoD lawyers in giving advice on the law of war. For example, since 1895, the Naval War College has published its International Law Studies journal.11 The Judge Advocate General of the Army’s Legal Center & School has published many editions of a Law of Armed Conflict Deskbook, a Law of Armed Conflict Documentary Supplement, and an Operational Law Handbook.12 The preparation of this manual also has benefited greatly from consulting foreign experts and resources – for example, the 2004 edition of the Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict by United Kingdom Ministry of Defence.13 In this way, the preparation of this manual is no different from its predecessors. For example, the 1956 Army Field manual benefited from considering a draft of what ultimately became the 1958 United Kingdom law of war manual, and the preparation of the 1914 War Department manual benefited from the Rules of Land Warfare prepared by officers of the English Army and Professor Lassa Oppenheim.14 The law of war 8 Department of the Air Force, The Judge Advocate General’s School, Air Force Operations and the Law (3rd ed., 2014); Department of the Air Force, The Judge Advocate General’s School, Air Force Operations & the Law: A Guide for Air, Space, and Cyber Forces (2nd ed., 2009); Department of the Air Force, Office of the Judge Advocate General, Air Force Operations & the Law (1st ed., 2002). 9 Department of the Navy, Naval Warfare Publication 9, The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations (Jul. 1987); Department of the Navy, Naval Warfare Publication 1-14M / Marine Corps Warfighting Publication 5-2.1 / Commandant Publication P5800.1, The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations (Oct. 1995); Department of the Navy, Naval Warfare Publication 1-14M / Marine Corps Warfighting Publication 5-12.1 / Commandant Publication P5800.7A, The Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations (Jul. 2007). 10 Department of the Navy, Office of the Judge Advocate General, Annotated Supplement to the Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations, NWP (Rev.A)/FMFM 1-10 (1989); U.S. Naval War College, Center for Naval Warfare Studies, Oceans Law and Policy Department, Annotated Supplement to the Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations (1997). 11 See, e.g., U.S. Naval War College, International Law Studies, Vol. 88, Non-International Armed Conflict in the Twenty-first Century (2012). 12 See, e.g., The Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, U.S. Army, International and Operational Law Department, Law of Armed Conflict Deskbook (2014); The Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, U.S. Army, International and Operational Law Department, Law of Armed Conflict Documentary Supplement (2014); The Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, U.S. Army, International and Operational Law Department, Operational Law Handbook (2014). 13 United Kingdom Ministry of Defence, Joint Service Publication 383, The Joint Service Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (2004). 14 See War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, Rules of Land Warfare, Preface 7 (Apr. 25, 1914) (“Especial use was made of the Rules of Land Warfare, prepared by officers of the English Army and Prof. L. Oppenheim, LL.D., and of Prof. Nagao Ariga’s book, ‘La Guerre Russo-Japonaise,’ which deals so carefully and thoroughly with the laws and usages of war during one of the greatest wars of recent times.”). iv manuals of Germany, Australia, and Canada were also helpful resources in the preparation of this manual.15 The preparation of this manual has also benefited from the participation of officers from the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force and the Australian Royal Air Force on exchange assignments with the U.S. Air Force. In addition, military lawyers from Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia reviewed and commented on a draft of the manual in 2009 as part of review that also included comments from distinguished scholars. Promulgating a DoD-wide manual on the law of war has been a long-standing goal of DoD lawyers. Memoranda and meeting notes from the 1970s reflect that the international law offices of the Department of the Army’s Office of the Judge Advocate General and the Department of the Navy’s Office of the Judge Advocate General generally agreed on a concept plan for a new all-Services law of war manual that would be a resource for implementing the 1977 Additional Protocols to the 1949 Geneva Conventions.16 At the time, it was anticipated that the United States would ratify the Protocols, which has not occurred. The origin of this manual may be traced to work in the late 1980s to update Department of the Army Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare.17 Then, in the mid-1990s, work began on an all-Services law of war manual to reflect the views of all DoD components. It was envisioned that the manual would provide not only the black letter rules, but also discussion, examples of State practice, and references to past manuals, treatises, and other documents to provide explanation, clarification, and elaboration. The present manual has sought to realize that vision and thus it falls within the tradition of the 1914 War Department manual, as well as the 1989 and 1997 Commander’s Handbook on the Law of Naval Operations, which also adopted this general approach of an annotated manual. This manual is an institutional publication and reflects the views of the Department of Defense, rather than the views of any particular person or DoD component. An effort has been made to reflect in this manual sound legal positions based on relevant authoritative sources of the law, including as developed by the DoD or the U.S. Government under such sources, and to show in the cited sources the past practice of DoD or the United States in applying the law of war. This manual primarily has been prepared by the DoD Law of War Working Group, which is chaired by a representative of the DoD General Counsel and includes representatives of the 15 Germany, Federal Ministry of Defence, Joint Service Regulation (ZDv) 15/2, Law of Armed Conflict Manual (May 1, 2013); Australian Defence Force, Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 06.4, Law of Armed Conflict (May 11, 2006); Canada, Department of National Defence, Joint Doctrine Manual B-GJ-005-104/FP-021, Law of Armed Conflict at the Operational and Tactical Levels (Aug. 13, 2001). 16 Captain Bruce A. Harlow, JAGC, U.S. Navy, Memorandum for Mr. Waldemar H. Solf (DAJA-IA), Preparation of New Law of War Manual (Dec. 28, 1976). 17 Remarks by W. Hays Parks, Customary Law and Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions for Protection of War Victims: Future Directions in Light of the U.S. Decision Not to Ratify, 81 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW PROCEEDINGS 26 (Apr. 9, 1987) (“I have the job of writing the new U.S. Army Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, so this panel is of particular interest to me.”). v Judge Advocates General of the Army, Navy, and Air Force; the Staff Judge Advocate to the Commandant of the Marine Corps; the offices of the General Counsels of the Military Departments; and the Legal Counsel to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.18 This manual has been reviewed by principals of these offices. The preparation of this manual has also benefited significantly from the participation of experts from the Department of State, Office of the Legal Adviser, and the Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, although the views in this manual do not necessarily reflect the views of those Departments or the U.S. Government as a whole. Comments and suggestions from users of the DoD Law of War Manual are invited. All such correspondence should be addressed by email to: [email protected]. 18 Department of Defense Directive 2310.01E, DoD Law of War Program ¶5.1.4 (May 9, 2006, Certified Current as of Feb. 22, 2011) (providing for a “DoD Law of War Working Group, consisting of representatives, at the election by each of the GC, DoD; the General Counsel of each Military Department; the Counsel to the Commandant of the Marine Corps; the Judge Advocate General of each Military Department; the Staff Judge Advocate to the Commandant of the Marine Corps; and the Legal Counsel to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The DoD Law of War Working Group shall develop and coordinate law of war initiatives and issues; support the research, preparation, review, and updating of the DoD Law of War Manual; manage other law of war matters as they arise; and provide advice to the General Counsel on legal matters covered by this Directive.”). vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword .........................................................................................................................ii Preface .............................................................................................................................iii Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................vii List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................xvii I – General Background ............................................................................................................1 1.1 Purpose and Scope of This Manual ...........................................................................1 1.2 Use of Footnotes, Sources, Cross-References, and Signals in This Manual .............2 1.3 Definition of the Law of War .....................................................................................7 1.4 Object and Nature of War ..........................................................................................15 1.5 “War” as a Legal Concept..........................................................................................18 1.6 Law of War Distinguished From Certain Topics .......................................................20 1.7 Treaties .......................................................................................................................27 1.8 Customary International Law ....................................................................................29 1.9 Subsidiary Means of Determining International Law ................................................34 1.10 Legal Force of the Law of War ................................................................................36 1.11 Jus ad Bellum ...........................................................................................................39 II – Principles .............................................................................................................................50 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................50 2.2 Military Necessity ......................................................................................................52 2.3 Humanity....................................................................................................................58 2.4 Proportionality ...........................................................................................................60 2.5 Distinction ..................................................................................................................62 2.6 Honor .........................................................................................................................66 III – Application of the Law of War ........................................................................................70 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................70 3.2 Situations to Which the Law of War Applies ............................................................73 3.3 Status of the Parties and the Law of War ...................................................................73 3.4 When Jus in Bello Rules Apply .................................................................................78 3.5 Relationship Between Jus in Bello and Jus ad Bellum ..............................................86 3.6 Reciprocity and Law of War Rules ............................................................................89 3.7 Applying Rules by Analogy.......................................................................................92 3.8 End of Hostilities and the Application of the Law of War ........................................94 3.9 Law of War Duties Also Applicable in Peace ...........................................................96 IV – Classes of Persons ..............................................................................................................98 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................98 vii 4.2 The Armed Forces and the Civilian Population .........................................................100 4.3 Lawful Combatants and Unprivileged Belligerents ...................................................103 4.4 Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of Combatants ...........................................................106 4.5 Armed Forces of a State .............................................................................................112 4.6 Other Militia and Volunteer Corps ............................................................................118 4.7 Levée en Masse ..........................................................................................................125 4.8 Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of Civilians ................................................................127 4.9 Military Medical and Religious Personnel ................................................................129 4.10 Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of Military Medical and Religious Personnel .........133 4.11 Authorized Staff of Voluntary Aid Societies ...........................................................134 4.12 Staff of a Recognized Aid Society of a Neutral Country .........................................135 4.13 Auxiliary Medical Personnel ...................................................................................136 4.14 Personnel Engaged in Duties Related to the Protection of Cultural Property .........138 4.15 Persons Authorized to Accompany the Armed Forces ............................................142 4.16 Crews of Merchant Marine Vessels or Civil Aircraft ..............................................148 4.17 Spies, Saboteurs, and Other Persons Engaging in Similar Acts Behind Enemy Lines ........................................................................................................150 4.18 Private Persons Who Engage in Hostilities .............................................................157 4.19 Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of Unprivileged Belligerents ...................................162 4.20 Children....................................................................................................................166 4.21 Mercenaries ..............................................................................................................170 4.22 AP I Provisions on Civil Defense Personnel ...........................................................172 4.23 Law Enforcement Officers .......................................................................................172 4.24 Journalists ................................................................................................................173 4.25 Delegates or Representatives of the Protecting Powers ...........................................175 4.26 ICRC and Other Impartial Humanitarian Organizations .........................................176 4.27 Determining the Status of Detainees in Cases of Doubt ..........................................179 V – The Conduct of Hostilities ..................................................................................................183 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................183 5.2 Principles for the Conduct of Hostilities ....................................................................185 5.3 Overview of Rules for the Protection of Civilians.....................................................185 5.4 Assessing Information Under the Law of War ..........................................................192 5.5 Rules on Conducting Assaults, Bombardments, and Other Attacks ..........................194 5.6 Discrimination in Conducting Attacks .......................................................................203 5.7 Military Objectives ....................................................................................................205 5.8 Combatants ................................................................................................................216 5.9 Civilians Taking a Direct Part in Hostilities ..............................................................222 5.10 Persons Placed Hors de Combat ..............................................................................232 5.11 Feasible Precautions in Conducting Attacks to Reduce the Risk of Harm to Protected Persons and Objects .............................................................................237 5.12 Proportionality in Conducting Attacks ....................................................................241 5.13 Attacks on Facilities, Works, or Installations Containing Dangerous Forces .........247 5.14 Feasible Precautions to Reduce the Risk of Harm to Protected Persons and Objects by the Party Subject to Attack ................................................................248 viii 5.15 Undefended Cities, Towns, and Villages .................................................................253 5.16 Prohibition on Using Protected Persons and Objects to Shield, Favor, or Impede Military Operations .................................................................................258 5.17 Seizure and Destruction of Enemy Property ............................................................261 5.18 Protection of Cultural Property During Hostilities ..................................................269 5.19 Sieges and Encircled Areas ......................................................................................288 5.20 Starvation .................................................................................................................291 5.21 Overview of Good Faith, Perfidy, and Ruses ..........................................................294 5.22 Treachery or Perfidy Used to Kill or Wound...........................................................296 5.23 Use of Enemy Flags, Insignia, and Military Uniforms ............................................298 5.24 Improper Use of Certain Signs ................................................................................300 5.25 Ruses of War and Other Lawful Deceptions ...........................................................302 5.26 Non-Forcible Means and Methods of Warfare ........................................................307 5.27 Prohibition Against Compelling Enemy Nationals to Take Part in the Operations of War Directed Against Their Own Country ...................................310 VI – Weapons .............................................................................................................................312 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................312 6.2 DoD Policy of Reviewing the Legality of Weapons .................................................313 6.3 Other Practices to Help Implement Law of War Obligations With Respect to Weapons ...............................................................................................................316 6.4 Prohibited Weapons ...................................................................................................317 6.5 Lawful Weapons ........................................................................................................318 6.6 Weapons Calculated to Cause Superfluous Injury.....................................................334 6.7 Inherently Indiscriminate Weapons ...........................................................................340 6.8 Poison, Poisoned Weapons, Poisonous Gases, and Other Chemical Weapons .........343 6.9 Biological Weapons ...................................................................................................350 6.10 Certain Environmental Modification Techniques ....................................................352 6.11 Weapons Injuring by Fragments Not Detectable by X-Rays...................................355 6.12 Landmines, Booby-Traps, and Other Devices .........................................................356 6.13 Cluster Munitions.....................................................................................................380 6.14 Incendiary Weapons.................................................................................................382 6.15 Laser Weapons .........................................................................................................387 6.16 Riot Control Agents .................................................................................................389 6.17 Herbicides ................................................................................................................392 6.18 Nuclear Weapons .....................................................................................................393 6.19 Explosive Ordnance .................................................................................................395 6.20 Explosive Remnants of War ....................................................................................400 VII –Wounded, Sick, Shipwrecked, Dead, and the Medical Services ...................................410 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................410 7.2 Application of the Protections of the GWS and GWS-Sea........................................413 7.3 Respect and Protection of the Wounded, Sick, and Shipwrecked .............................415 ix