Democracy in America, Volumes One and Two by Alexis de Tocqueville, trans. Henry Reeveis a Democracy publication of the Pennsylvania State University. This Portable Document file is furnished free and without any charge of any kind. Any person using this document file, for any purpose, and in any way does so at his or her own risk. Neither the Pennsylvania State University nor Jim Manis, Faculty Editor, nor anyone associated with the Pennsylvania State University assumes any responsibility for the material contained within the document or for the file as an elec- in America tronic transmission, in any way. Democracy in America, Volumes One and Two by Alexis de Tocqueville, trans. Henry Reeve, the Pennsylvania State University, Electronic Classics Series, Jim Manis, Faculty Editor, Hazleton, PA 18201-1291 is a Portable Document File produced as part of an ongoing student publication project to bring classical works of literature, in English, to free and easy access of those wishing By to make use of them. Cover Design: Jim Manis Alexis de Tocqueville Copyright © 2002 The Pennsylvania State University Translator – Henry Reeve A Penn State Electronic Classics Series Publication The Pennsylvania State University is an equal opportunity university. Tocqueville Democracy in America Book One was based. If they were true principles, as they were, the gov- regulated by law,” with such results in the development of ernment founded upon them was destined to a life and an strength, in population, wealth, and military and commer- influence that would continue while the liberties it was in- cial power, as no age had ever witnessed. Democracy Introduction tended to preserve should be valued by the human family. De Tocqueville had a special inquiry to prosecute, in his Those liberties had been wrung from reluctant monarchs in visit to America, in which his generous and faithful soul and In America Special Introduction many contests, in many countries, and were grouped into the powers of his great intellect were engaged in the patriotic By creeds and established in ordinances sealed with blood, in effort to secure to the people of France the blessings that Volume 1 Hon. John T. Morgan many great struggles of the people. They were not new to Democracy in America had ordained and established the people. They were consecrated theories, but no govern- throughout nearly the entire Western Hemisphere. He had In the eleven years that separated the Declaration of the In- ment had been previously established for the great purpose read the story of the FrenchRevolution, much of which had By dependence of the United States from the completion of that of their preservation and enforcement. That which was ex- been recently written in the blood of men and women of act in the ordination of our written Constitution, the great perimental in our plan of government was the question great distinction who were his progenitors; and had witnessed Alexis de Tocqueville minds of America were bent upon the study of the prin- whether democratic rule could be so organized and conducted the agitations and terrors of the Restoration and of the Sec- ciples of government that were essential to the preservation that it would not degenerate into license and result in the ond Republic, fruitful in crime and sacrifice, and barren of of the liberties which had been won at great cost and with tyranny of absolutism, without saving to the people the power any good to mankind. Translator – Henry Reeve heroic labors and sacrifices. Their studies were conducted in so often found necessary of repressing or destroying their He had just witnessed the spread of republican govern- view of the imperfections that experience had developed in enemy, when he was found in the person of a single despot. ment through all the vast continental possessions of Spain in the government of the Confederation, and they were, there- When, in 1831, Alexis de Tocqueville came to study De- America, and the loss of her great colonies. He had seen that fore, practical and thorough. mocracy in America, the trial of nearly a half-century of the these revolutions were accomplished almost without the shed- When the Constitution was thus perfected and established, working of our system had been made, and it had been ding of blood, and he was filled with anxiety to learn the a new form of government was created, but it was neither proved, by many crucial tests, to be a government of “liberty causes that had placed republican government, in France, in speculative nor experimental as to the principles on which it 3 4 Tocqueville Democracy in America such contrast with Democracy in America. monarchical rule, while time shall last. the people, of all races and conditions, their social and reli- ordained that could resist these internal forces, when, they De Tocqueville was scarcely thirty years old when he be- A French aristocrat of the purest strain of blood and of the gious sentiments, their education and tastes; their industries, are directed to its destruction by bad men, or unreasoning gan his studies of Democracy in America. It was a bold ef- most honorable lineage, whose family influence was coveted their commerce, their local governments, their passions and mobs, and many then believed, as some yet believe, that our fort for one who had no special training in government, or by crowned heads; who had no quarrel with the rulers of the prejudices, and their ethics and literature; leaving nothing government is unequal to such pressure, when the assault is in the study of political economy, but he had the example of nation, and was secure against want by his inherited estates; unnoticed that might afford an argument to prove that our thoroughly desperate. Lafayette in establishing the military foundation of these lib- was moved by the agitations that compelled France to at- plan and form of government was or was not adapted espe- Had De Tocqueville lived to examine the history of the erties, and of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Hamilton, tempt to grasp suddenly the liberties and happiness we had cially to a peculiar people, or that it would be impracticable United States from 1860 to 1870, his misgivings as to this all of whom were young men, in building upon the Inde- gained in our revolution and, by his devout love of France, in any different country, or among any different people. power of self- preservation would, probably, have been cleared pendence of the United States that wisest and best plan of to search out and subject to the test of reason the basic prin- The pride and comfort that the American people enjoy in off. He would have seen that, at the end of the most destruc- general government that was ever devised for a free people. ciples of free government that had been embodied in our the great commentaries of De Tocqueville are far removed tive civil war that ever occurred, when animosities of the He found that the American people, through their chosen Constitution. This was the mission of De Tocqueville, and from the selfish adulation that comes from a great and sin- bitterest sort had banished all good feeling from the hearts representatives who were instructed by their wisdom and no mission was ever more honorably or justly conducted, or gular success. It is the consciousness of victory over a false of our people, the States of the American Union, still in com- experience and were supported by their virtues – cultivated, concluded with greater eclat, or better results for the welfare theory of government which has afflicted mankind for many plete organization and equipped with all their official entou- purified and ennobled by self-reliance and the love of God – of mankind. ages, that gives joy to the true American, as it did to De rage, aligned themselves in their places and took up the pow- had matured, in the excellent wisdom of their counsels, a His researches were logical and exhaustive. They included Tocqueville in his great triumph. ers and duties of local government in perfect order and with- new plan of government, which embraced every security for every phase of every question that then seemed to be appo- When De Tocqueville wrote, we had lived less than fifty out embarrassment. This would have dispelled his appre- their liberties and equal rights and privileges to all in the site to the great inquiry he was making. years under our Constitution. In that time no great national hensions, if he had any, about the power of the United States pursuit of happiness. He came as an honest and impartial The judgment of all who have studied his commentaries commotion had occurred that tested its strength, or its power to withstand the severest shocks of civil war. Could he have student and his great commentary, like those of Paul, was seems to have been unanimous, that his talents and learning of resistance to internal strife, such as had converted his be- traced the further course of events until they open the por- written for the benefit of all nations and people and in vin- were fully equal to his task. He began with the physical ge- loved France into fields of slaughter torn by tempests of wrath. tals of the twentieth century, he would have cast away his dication of truths that will stand for their deliverance from ography of this country, and examined the characteristics of He had a strong conviction that no government could be fears of our ability to restore peace, order, and prosperity, in 5 6 Tocqueville Democracy in America the face of any difficulties, and would have rejoiced to find amendments of the Constitution have so changed this, that from the original plan and purpose of American Democ- ing citizens, is often a person who is unfit for any public in the Constitution of the United States the remedy that is those who were then negro slaves are clothed with the rights racy. “Local Self-Government,” independent of general con- duty or trust. In a town government, having a small area of provided for the healing of the nation. of citizenship, including the right of suffrage. This was a trol, except for general purposes, is the root and origin of all jurisdiction, where the voice of the majority of qualified vot- De Tocqueville examined, with the care that is worthy the political party movement, intended to be radical and revolu- free republican government, and is the antagonist of all great ers is conclusive, the fitness of the person who is to exercise importance of the subject, the nature and value of the sys- tionary, but it will, ultimately, react because it has not the political combinations that threaten the rights of minorities. that high representative privilege can be determined by his tem of “local self-government,” as we style this most impor- sanction of public opinion. It is the public opinion formed in the independent expres- neighbors and acquaintances, and, in the great majority of tant feature of our plan, and (as has often happened) when If M. De Tocqueville could now search for a law that would sions of towns and other small civil districts that is the real cases, it will be decided honestly and for the good of the this or any subject has become a matter of anxious concern, negative this provision in its effect upon social equality, he conservatism of free government. It is equally the enemy of country. In such meetings, there is always a spirit of loyalty his treatment of the questions is found to have been mas- would fail to find it. But he would find it in the unwritten that dangerous evil, the corruption of the ballot-box, from to the State, because that is loyalty to the people, and a rev- terly and his preconceptions almost prophetic. law of the natural aversion of the races. He would find it in which it is now apprehended that one of our greatest troubles erence for God that gives weight to the duties and responsi- We are frequently indebted to him for able expositions public opinion, which is the vital force in every law in a free is to arise. bilities of citizenship. and true doctrines relating to subjects that have slumbered government. This is a subject that our Constitution failed to The voter is selected, under our laws, because he has certain M. De Tocqueville found in these minor local jurisdictions in the minds of the people until they were suddenly forced regulate, because it was not contemplated by its authors. It is physical qualifications – age and sex. His disqualifications, the theoretical conservatism which, in the aggregate, is the on our attention by unexpected events. a question that will settle itself, without serious difficulty. when any are imposed, relate to his education or property, safest reliance of the State. So we have found them, in prac- In his introductory chapter, M. De Tocqueville says: The equality in the suffrage, thus guaranteed to the negro and to the fact that he has not been convicted of crime. Of all tice, the true protectors of the purity of the ballot, without “Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention dur- race, alone – for it was not intended to include other colored men he should be most directly amenable to public opinion. which all free government will degenerate into absolutism. ing my stay in the United States, nothing struck me more races -creates a new phase of political conditions that M. De The test of moral character and devotion to the duties of In the future of the Republic, we must encounter many forcibly than the general equality of conditions.” He referred, Tocqueville could not foresee. Yet, in his commendation of good citizenship are ignored in the laws, because the courts difficult and dangerous situations, but the principles estab- doubtless, to social and political conditions among the people the local town and county governments, he applauds and can seldom deal with such questions in a uniform and satis- lished in the Constitution and the check upon hasty or in- of the white race, who are described as “We, the people,” in sustains that elementary feature of our political organization factory way, under rules that apply alike to all. Thus the voter, considerate legislation, and upon executive action, and the the opening sentence of the Constitution. The last three which, in the end, will render harmless this wide departure selected by law to represent himself and four other non-vot- supreme arbitrament of the courts, will be found sufficient 7 8 Tocqueville Democracy in America for the safety of personal rights, and for the safety of the Special Introduction of Europe as a profound, impartial, and entertaining exposi- That a youth of twenty-six should entertain a design so government, and the prophetic outlook of M. De Tocqueville By tion of the principles of popular, representative self-govern- broad and bold implies singular intellectual intrepidity. He will be fully realized through the influence of Democracy in Hon. John J. Ingalls ment. had neither model nor precedent. The vastness and novelty America. Each succeeding generation of Americans will find Napoleon, “The mighty somnambulist of a vanished of the undertaking increase admiration for the remarkable in the pure and impartial reflections of De Tocqueville a new Nearly two-thirds of a century has elapsed since the appear- dream,” had abolished feudalism and absolutism, made ability with which the task was performed. source of pride in our institutions of government, and sound ance of “Democracy in America,” by Alexis Charles Henri monarchs and dynasties obsolete, and substituted for the Were literary excellence the sole claim of “Democracy in reasons for patriotic effort to preserve them and to inculcate Clerel de Tocqueville, a French nobleman, born at Paris, July divine right of kings the sovereignty of the people. America” to distinction, the splendor of its composition alone their teachings. They have mastered the power of monarchi- 29, 1805. Although by birth and sympathies an aristocrat, M. de would entitle it to high place among the masterpieces of the cal rule in the American Hemisphere, freeing religion from Bred to the law, he exhibited an early predilection for phi- Tocqueville saw that the reign of tradition and privilege at century. The first chapter, upon the exterior form of North all shackles, and will spread, by a quiet but resistless influ- losophy and political economy, and at twenty-two was ap- last was ended. He perceived that civilization, after many America, as the theatre upon which the great drama is to be ence, through the islands of the seas to other lands, where pointed judge-auditor at the tribunal of Versailles. bloody centuries, had entered a new epoch. He beheld, and enacted, for graphic and picturesque description of the physi- the appeals of De Tocqueville for human rights and liberties In 1831, commissioned ostensibly to investigate the peni- deplored, the excesses that had attended the genesis of the cal characteristics of the continent is not surpassed in litera- have already inspired the souls of the people. tentiary system of the United States, he visited this country, democratic spirit in France, and while he loved liberty, he ture: nor is there any subdivision of the work in which the with his friend, Gustave de Beaumont, travelling extensively detested the crimes that had been committed in its name. severest philosophy is not invested with the grace of poetry, Hon. John T. Morgan through those parts of the Republic then subdued to settle- Belonging neither to the class which regarded the social revo- and the driest statistics with the charm of romance. Western ment, studying the methods of local, State, and national ad- lution as an innovation to be resisted, nor to that which con- emigration seemed commonplace and prosaic till M. de ministration, and observing the manners and habits, the daily sidered political equality the universal panacea for the evils Tocqueville said, “This gradual and continuous progress of life, the business, the industries and occupations of the people. of humanity, he resolved by personal observation of the re- the European race toward the Rocky Mountains has the so- “Democracy in America,” the first of four volumes upon sults of democracy in the New World to ascertain its natural lemnity of a providential event; it is like a deluge of men “American Institutions and their Influence,” was published consequences, and to learn what the nations of Europe had rising unabatedly, and daily driven onward by the hand of in 1835. It was received at once by the scholars and thinkers to hope or fear from its final supremacy. God!” 9 10 Tocqueville Democracy in America The mind of M. de Tocqueville had the candor of the pho- sence of intellectual freedom which seemed to him to de- the public service. In 1856 he published “The Old Regime Introductory Chapter tographic camera. It recorded impressions with the impar- grade administration and bring statesmanship, learning, and and the Revolution.” He died at Cannes, April 15, 1859, at tiality of nature. The image was sometimes distorted, and literature to the level of the lowest, are no longer considered. the age of fifty-four. Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention dur- the perspective was not always true, but he was neither a The violence of party spirit has been mitigated, and the judg- ing my stay in the United States, nothing struck me more panegyrist, nor an advocate, nor a critic. He observed Ameri- ment of the wise is not subordinated to the prejudices of the Hon. John J. Ingalls forcibly than the general equality of conditions. I readily dis- can phenomena as illustrations, not as proof nor arguments; ignorant. covered the prodigious influence which this primary fact and although it is apparent that the tendency of his mind Other dangers have come. Equality of conditions no longer exercises on the whole course of society, by giving a certain was not wholly favorable to the democratic principle, yet exists. Prophets of evil predict the downfall of democracy, direction to public opinion, and a certain tenor to the laws; those who dissent from his conclusions must commend the but the student of M. de Tocqueville will find consolation by imparting new maxims to the governing powers, and pe- ability and courage with which they are expressed. and encouragement in the reflection that the same spirit culiar habits to the governed. I speedily perceived that the Though not originally written for Americans, “Democ- which has vanquished the perils of the past, which he fore- influence of this fact extends far beyond the political charac- racy in America” must always remain a work of engrossing saw, will be equally prepared for the responsibilities of the ter and the laws of the country, and that it has no less empire and constantly increasing interest to citizens of the United present and the future. over civil society than over the Government; it creates opin- States as the first philosophic and comprehensive view of The last of the four volumes of M. de Tocqueville’s work ions, engenders sentiments, suggests the ordinary practices our society, institutions, and destiny. No one can rise even upon American institutions appeared in 1840. of life, and modifies whatever it does not produce. The more from the most cursory perusal without clearer insight and In 1838 he was chosen member of the Academy of Moral I advanced in the study of American society, the more I per- more patriotic appreciation of the blessings of liberty pro- and Political Sciences. In 1839 he was elected to the Cham- ceived that the equality of conditions is the fundamental fact tected by law, nor without encouragement for the stability ber of Deputies. He became a member of the French Acad- from which all others seem to be derived, and the central and perpetuity of the Republic. The causes which appeared emy in 1841. In 1848 he was in the Assembly, and from point at which all my observations constantly terminated. to M. de Tocqueville to menace both, have gone. The despo- June 2nd to October 31st he was Minister of Foreign Af- I then turned my thoughts to our own hemisphere, where tism of public opinion, the tyranny of majorities, the ab- fairs. The coup d’etat of December 2, 1851 drove him from I imagined that I discerned something analogous to the spec- 11 12 Tocqueville Democracy in America tacle which the New World presented to me. I observed that and began to exert itself: the clergy opened its ranks to all opened chances of success to talent; science became a means XI and Louis XIV reduced every rank beneath the throne to the equality of conditions is daily progressing towards those classes, to the poor and the rich, the villein and the lord; of government, intelligence led to social power, and the man the same subjection; Louis XV descended, himself and all extreme limits which it seems to have reached in the United equality penetrated into the Government through the of letters took a part in the affairs of the State. The value his Court, into the dust. States, and that the democracy which governs the American Church, and the being who as a serf must have vegetated in attached to the privileges of birth decreased in the exact pro- As soon as land was held on any other than a feudal ten- communities appears to be rapidly rising into power in Eu- perpetual bondage took his place as a priest in the midst of portion in which new paths were struck out to advancement. ure, and personal property began in its turn to confer influ- rope. I hence conceived the idea of the book which is now nobles, and not infrequently above the heads of kings. In the eleventh century nobility was beyond all price; in the ence and power, every improvement which was introduced before the reader. The different relations of men became more complicated thirteenth it might be purchased; it was conferred for the in commerce or manufacture was a fresh element of the equal- It is evident to all alike that a great democratic revolution and more numerous as society gradually became more stable first time in 1270; and equality was thus introduced into the ity of conditions. Henceforward every new discovery, every is going on amongst us; but there are two opinions as to its and more civilized. Thence the want of civil laws was felt; Government by the aristocracy itself. new want which it engendered, and every new desire which nature and consequences. To some it appears to be a novel and the order of legal functionaries soon rose from the ob- In the course of these seven hundred years it sometimes craved satisfaction, was a step towards the universal level. accident, which as such may still be checked; to others it scurity of the tribunals and their dusty chambers, to appear happened that in order to resist the authority of the Crown, The taste for luxury, the love of war, the sway of fashion, and seems irresistible, because it is the most uniform, the most at the court of the monarch, by the side of the feudal barons or to diminish the power of their rivals, the nobles granted a the most superficial as well as the deepest passions of the ancient, and the most permanent tendency which is to be in their ermine and their mail. Whilst the kings were ruin- certain share of political rights to the people. Or, more fre- human heart, co-operated to enrich the poor and to impov- found in history. Let us recollect the situation of France seven ing themselves by their great enterprises, and the nobles ex- quently, the king permitted the lower orders to enjoy a de- erish the rich. hundred years ago, when the territory was divided amongst hausting their resources by private wars, the lower orders gree of power, with the intention of repressing the aristoc- From the time when the exercise of the intellect became a small number of families, who were the owners of the soil were enriching themselves by commerce. The influence of racy. In France the kings have always been the most active the source of strength and of wealth, it is impossible not to and the rulers of the inhabitants; the right of governing de- money began to be perceptible in State affairs. The transac- and the most constant of levellers. When they were strong consider every addition to science, every fresh truth, and every scended with the family inheritance from generation to gen- tions of business opened a new road to power, and the finan- and ambitious they spared no pains to raise the people to the new idea as a germ of power placed within the reach of the eration; force was the only means by which man could act cier rose to a station of political influence in which he was at level of the nobles; when they were temperate or weak they people. Poetry, eloquence, and memory, the grace of wit, the on man, and landed property was the sole source of power. once flattered and despised. Gradually the spread of mental allowed the people to rise above themselves. Some assisted glow of imagination, the depth of thought, and all the gifts Soon, however, the political power of the clergy was founded, acquirements, and the increasing taste for literature and art, the democracy by their talents, others by their vices. Louis which are bestowed by Providence with an equal hand, turned 13 14 Tocqueville Democracy in America to the advantage of the democracy; and even when they were examine what has happened in France at intervals of fifty teristics of a divine decree: it is universal, it is durable, it unquestionable signs of His will; we can discern them in the in the possession of its adversaries they still served its cause years, beginning with the eleventh century, we shall invari- constantly eludes all human interference, and all events as habitual course of nature, and in the invariable tendency of by throwing into relief the natural greatness of man; its con- ably perceive that a twofold revolution has taken place in the well as all men contribute to its progress. Would it, then, be events: I know, without a special revelation, that the planets quests spread, therefore, with those of civilization and knowl- state of society. The noble has gone down on the social lad- wise to imagine that a social impulse which dates from so far move in the orbits traced by the Creator’s finger. If the men edge, and literature became an arsenal where the poorest and der, and the roturier has gone up; the one descends as the back can be checked by the efforts of a generation? Is it cred- of our time were led by attentive observation and by sincere the weakest could always find weapons to their hand. other rises. Every half century brings them nearer to each ible that the democracy which has annihilated the feudal reflection to acknowledge that the gradual and progressive In perusing the pages of our history, we shall scarcely meet other, and they will very shortly meet. system and vanquished kings will respect the citizen and the development of social equality is at once the past and future with a single great event, in the lapse of seven hundred years, Nor is this phenomenon at all peculiar to France. capitalist? Will it stop now that it has grown so strong and of their history, this solitary truth would confer the sacred which has not turned to the advantage of equality. The Cru- Whithersoever we turn our eyes we shall witness the same its adversaries so weak? None can say which way we are go- character of a Divine decree upon the change. To attempt to sades and the wars of the English decimated the nobles and continual revolution throughout the whole of Christendom. ing, for all terms of comparison are wanting: the equality of check democracy would be in that case to resist the will of divided their possessions; the erection of communities in- The various occurrences of national existence have every- conditions is more complete in the Christian countries of God; and the nations would then be constrained to make troduced an element of democratic liberty into the bosom of where turned to the advantage of democracy; all men have the present day than it has been at any time or in any part of the best of the social lot awarded to them by Providence. feudal monarchy; the invention of fire-arms equalized the aided it by their exertions: those who have intentionally la- the world; so that the extent of what already exists prevents The Christian nations of our age seem to me to present a villein and the noble on the field of battle; printing opened bored in its cause, and those who have served it unwittingly; us from foreseeing what may be yet to come. most alarming spectacle; the impulse which is bearing them the same resources to the minds of all classes; the post was those who have fought for it and those who have declared The whole book which is here offered to the public has along is so strong that it cannot be stopped, but it is not yet organized so as to bring the same information to the door of themselves its opponents, have all been driven along in the been written under the impression of a kind of religious dread so rapid that it cannot be guided: their fate is in their hands; the poor man’s cottage and to the gate of the palace; and same track, have all labored to one end, some ignorantly and produced in the author’s mind by the contemplation of so yet a little while and it may be so no longer. The first duty Protestantism proclaimed that all men are alike able to find some unwillingly; all have been blind instruments in the irresistible a revolution, which has advanced for centuries in which is at this time imposed upon those who direct our the road to heaven. The discovery of America offered a thou- hands of God. spite of such amazing obstacles, and which is still proceed- affairs is to educate the democracy; to warm its faith, if that sand new paths to fortune, and placed riches and power The gradual development of the equality of conditions is ing in the midst of the ruins it has made. It is not necessary be possible; to purify its morals; to direct its energies; to sub- within the reach of the adventurous and the obscure. If we therefore a providential fact, and it possesses all the charac- that God himself should speak in order to disclose to us the stitute a knowledge of business for its inexperience, and an 15 16 Tocqueville Democracy in America acquaintance with its true interests for its blind propensities; of society. The existence of a democracy was seemingly un- The power of a part of his subjects was an insurmountable as the serf looked upon his own inferiority as a consequence to adapt its government to time and place, and to modify it known, when on a sudden it took possession of the supreme barrier to the tyranny of the prince; and the monarch, who of the immutable order of nature, it is easy to imagine that a in compliance with the occurrences and the actors of the power. Everything was then submitted to its caprices; it was felt the almost divine character which he enjoyed in the eyes mutual exchange of good-will took place between two classes age. A new science of politics is indispensable to a new world. worshipped as the idol of strength; until, when it was enfeebled of the multitude, derived a motive for the just use of his so differently gifted by fate. Inequality and wretchedness were This, however, is what we think of least; launched in the by its own excesses, the legislator conceived the rash project of power from the respect which he inspired. High as they were then to be found in society; but the souls of neither rank of middle of a rapid stream, we obstinately fix our eyes on the annihilating its power, instead of instructing it and correcting placed above the people, the nobles could not but take that men were degraded. Men are not corrupted by the exercise ruins which may still be described upon the shore we have its vices; no attempt was made to fit it to govern, but all were calm and benevolent interest in its fate which the shepherd of power or debased by the habit of obedience, but by the left, whilst the current sweeps us along, and drives us back- bent on excluding it from the government. feels towards his flock; and without acknowledging the poor exercise of a power which they believe to be illegal and by wards towards the gulf. The consequence of this has been that the democratic revo- as their equals, they watched over the destiny of those whose obedience to a rule which they consider to be usurped and In no country in Europe has the great social revolution lution has been effected only in the material parts of society, welfare Providence had entrusted to their care. The people oppressive. On one side was wealth, strength, and leisure, which I have been describing made such rapid progress as in without that concomitant change in laws, ideas, customs, never having conceived the idea of a social condition differ- accompanied by the refinements of luxury, the elegance of France; but it has always been borne on by chance. The heads and manners which was necessary to render such a revolu- ent from its own, and entertaining no expectation of ever taste, the pleasures of wit, and the religion of art. On the of the State have never had any forethought for its exigen- tion beneficial. We have gotten a democracy, but without ranking with its chiefs, received benefits from them without other was labor and a rude ignorance; but in the midst of cies, and its victories have been obtained without their con- the conditions which lessen its vices and render its natural discussing their rights. It grew attached to them when they this coarse and ignorant multitude it was not uncommon to sent or without their knowledge. The most powerful, the advantages more prominent; and although we already per- were clement and just, and it submitted without resistance meet with energetic passions, generous sentiments, profound most intelligent, and the most moral classes of the nation ceive the evils it brings, we are ignorant of the benefits it or servility to their exactions, as to the inevitable visitations religious convictions, and independent virtues. The body of have never attempted to connect themselves with it in order may confer. of the arm of God. Custom, and the manners of the time, a State thus organized might boast of its stability, its power, to guide it. The people has consequently been abandoned to While the power of the Crown, supported by the aristoc- had moreover created a species of law in the midst of vio- and, above all, of its glory. its wild propensities, and it has grown up like those outcasts racy, peaceably governed the nations of Europe, society pos- lence, and established certain limits to oppression. As the But the scene is now changed, and gradually the two ranks who receive their education in the public streets, and who sessed, in the midst of its wretchedness, several different ad- noble never suspected that anyone would attempt to deprive mingle; the divisions which once severed mankind are low- are unacquainted with aught but the vices and wretchedness vantages which can now scarcely be appreciated or conceived. him of the privileges which he believed to be legitimate, and ered, property is divided, power is held in common, the light 17 18 Tocqueville Democracy in America of intelligence spreads, and the capacities of all classes are may be regulated and directed forwards; if there be less splen- not good or useful, society would at least have appropriated nearer they draw to each other, the greater is their mutual equally cultivated; the State becomes democratic, and the dor than in the halls of an aristocracy, the contrast of misery all such as were useful and good; and having once and for hatred, and the more vehement the envy and the dread with empire of democracy is slowly and peaceably introduced into will be less frequent also; the pleasures of enjoyment may be ever renounced the social advantages of aristocracy, man- which they resist each other’s claims to power; the notion of the institutions and the manners of the nation. I can con- less excessive, but those of comfort will be more general; the kind would enter into possession of all the benefits which Right is alike insensible to both classes, and Force affords to ceive a society in which all men would profess an equal at- sciences may be less perfectly cultivated, but ignorance will democracy can afford. both the only argument for the present, and the only guar- tachment and respect for the laws of which they are the com- be less common; the impetuosity of the feelings will be re- But here it may be asked what we have adopted in the antee for the future. The poor man retains the prejudices of mon authors; in which the authority of the State would be pressed, and the habits of the nation softened; there will be place of those institutions, those ideas, and those customs of his forefathers without their faith, and their ignorance with- respected as necessary, though not as divine; and the loyalty more vices and fewer crimes. In the absence of enthusiasm our forefathers which we have abandoned. The spell of roy- out their virtues; he has adopted the doctrine of self-interest of the subject to its chief magistrate would not be a passion, and of an ardent faith, great sacrifices may be obtained from alty is broken, but it has not been succeeded by the majesty as the rule of his actions, without understanding the science but a quiet and rational persuasion. Every individual being the members of a commonwealth by an appeal to their un- of the laws; the people has learned to despise all authority, which controls it, and his egotism is no less blind than his in the possession of rights which he is sure to retain, a kind derstandings and their experience; each individual will feel but fear now extorts a larger tribute of obedience than that devotedness was formerly. If society is tranquil, it is not be- of manly reliance and reciprocal courtesy would arise be- the same necessity for uniting with his fellow-citizens to pro- which was formerly paid by reverence and by love. cause it relies upon its strength and its well-being, but be- tween all classes, alike removed from pride and meanness. tect his own weakness; and as he knows that if they are to I perceive that we have destroyed those independent be- cause it knows its weakness and its infirmities; a single effort The people, well acquainted with its true interests, would assist he must co-operate, he will readily perceive that his ings which were able to cope with tyranny single-handed; may cost it its life; everybody feels the evil, but no one has allow that in order to profit by the advantages of society it is personal interest is identified with the interest of the com- but it is the Government that has inherited the privileges of courage or energy enough to seek the cure; the desires, the necessary to satisfy its demands. In this state of things the munity. The nation, taken as a whole, will be less brilliant, which families, corporations, and individuals have been de- regret, the sorrows, and the joys of the time produce nothing voluntary association of the citizens might supply the indi- less glorious, and perhaps less strong; but the majority of the prived; the weakness of the whole community has therefore that is visible or permanent, like the passions of old men vidual exertions of the nobles, and the community would be citizens will enjoy a greater degree of prosperity, and the succeeded that influence of a small body of citizens, which, which terminate in impotence. alike protected from anarchy and from oppression. people will remain quiet, not because it despairs of amelio- if it was sometimes oppressive, was often conservative. The We have, then, abandoned whatever advantages the old I admit that, in a democratic State thus constituted, soci- ration, but because it is conscious of the advantages of its division of property has lessened the distance which sepa- state of things afforded, without receiving any compensa- ety will not be stationary; but the impulses of the social body condition. If all the consequences of this state of things were rated the rich from the poor; but it would seem that the tion from our present condition; we have destroyed an aris- 19 20 Tocqueville Democracy in America tocracy, and we seem inclined to survey its ruins with com- all the laws of moral analogy to be dissolved, and all the laws morality without faith; but they have seen religion in the Not far from this class is another party, whose object is to placency, and to fix our abode in the midst of them. of moral analogy to be abolished. ranks of their adversaries, and they inquire no further; some materialize mankind, to hit upon what is expedient without The phenomena which the intellectual world presents are Zealous Christians may be found amongst us whose minds of them attack it openly, and the remainder are afraid to heeding what is just, to acquire knowledge without faith, not less deplorable. The democracy of France, checked in its are nurtured in the love and knowledge of a future life, and defend it. and prosperity apart from virtue; assuming the title of the course or abandoned to its lawless passions, has overthrown who readily espouse the cause of human liberty as the source In former ages slavery has been advocated by the venal champions of modern civilization, and placing themselves whatever crossed its path, and has shaken all that it has not of all moral greatness. Christianity, which has declared that and slavish-minded, whilst the independent and the warm- in a station which they usurp with insolence, and from which destroyed. Its empire on society has not been gradually in- all men are equal in the sight of God, will not refuse to ac- hearted were struggling without hope to save the liberties of they are driven by their own unworthiness. Where are we troduced or peaceably established, but it has constantly ad- knowledge that all citizens are equal in the eye of the law. mankind. But men of high and generous characters are now then? The religionists are the enemies of liberty, and the vanced in the midst of disorder and the agitation of a con- But, by a singular concourse of events, religion is entangled to be met with, whose opinions are at variance with their friends of liberty attack religion; the high- minded and the flict. In the heat of the struggle each partisan is hurried be- in those institutions which democracy assails, and it is not inclinations, and who praise that servility which they have noble advocate subjection, and the meanest and most servile yond the limits of his opinions by the opinions and the ex- unfrequently brought to reject the equality it loves, and to themselves never known. Others, on the contrary, speak in minds preach independence; honest and enlightened citi- cesses of his opponents, until he loses sight of the end of his curse that cause of liberty as a foe which it might hallow by the name of liberty, as if they were able to feel its sanctity zens are opposed to all progress, whilst men without patrio- exertions, and holds a language which disguises his real sen- its alliance. and its majesty, and loudly claim for humanity those rights tism and without principles are the apostles of civilization timents or secret instincts. Hence arises the strange confu- By the side of these religious men I discern others whose which they have always disowned. There are virtuous and and of intelligence. Has such been the fate of the centuries sion which we are witnessing. I cannot recall to my mind a looks are turned to the earth more than to Heaven; they are peaceful individuals whose pure morality, quiet habits, af- which have preceded our own? and has man always inhab- passage in history more worthy of sorrow and of pity than the partisans of liberty, not only as the source of the noblest fluence, and talents fit them to be the leaders of the sur- ited a world like the present, where nothing is linked to- the scenes which are happening under our eyes; it is as if the virtues, but more especially as the root of all solid advan- rounding population; their love of their country is sincere, gether, where virtue is without genius, and genius without natural bond which unites the opinions of man to his tastes tages; and they sincerely desire to extend its sway, and to and they are prepared to make the greatest sacrifices to its honor; where the love of order is confounded with a taste for and his actions to his principles was now broken; the sympa- impart its blessings to mankind. It is natural that they should welfare, but they confound the abuses of civilization with its oppression, and the holy rites of freedom with a contempt thy which has always been acknowledged between the feel- hasten to invoke the assistance of religion, for they must know benefits, and the idea of evil is inseparable in their minds of law; where the light thrown by conscience on human ac- ings and the ideas of mankind appears to be dissolved, and that liberty cannot be established without morality, nor from that of novelty. tions is dim, and where nothing seems to be any longer for- 21 22 Tocqueville Democracy in America bidden or allowed, honorable or shameful, false or true? I It appears to me beyond a doubt that sooner or later we revolution as a fact already accomplished or on the eve of its in making known what I saw in America, but I am certain cannot, however, believe that the Creator made man to leave shall arrive, like the Americans, at an almost complete equality accomplishment; and I have selected the nation, from that such has been my sincere desire, and that I have never, him in an endless struggle with the intellectual miseries which of conditions. But I do not conclude from this that we shall amongst those which have undergone it, in which its devel- knowingly, moulded facts to ideas, instead of ideas to facts. surround us: God destines a calmer and a more certain fu- ever be necessarily led to draw the same political consequences opment has been the most peaceful and the most complete, Whenever a point could be established by the aid of writ- ture to the communities of Europe; I am unacquainted with which the Americans have derived from a similar social or- in order to discern its natural consequences, and, if it be ten documents, I have had recourse to the original text, and His designs, but I shall not cease to believe in them because ganization. I am far from supposing that they have chosen possible, to distinguish the means by which it may be ren- to the most authentic and approved works. I have cited my I cannot fathom them, and I had rather mistrust my own the only form of government which a democracy may adopt; dered profitable. I confess that in America I saw more than authorities in the notes, and anyone may refer to them. capacity than His justice. but the identity of the efficient cause of laws and manners in America; I sought the image of democracy itself, with its Whenever an opinion, a political custom, or a remark on the There is a country in the world where the great revolution the two countries is sufficient to account for the immense inclinations, its character, its prejudices, and its passions, in manners of the country was concerned, I endeavored to con- which I am speaking of seems nearly to have reached its natu- interest we have in becoming acquainted with its effects in order to learn what we have to fear or to hope from its sult the most enlightened men I met with. If the point in ral limits; it has been effected with ease and simplicity, say each of them. progress. question was important or doubtful, I was not satisfied with rather that this country has attained the consequences of the It is not, then, merely to satisfy a legitimate curiosity that In the first part of this work I have attempted to show the one testimony, but I formed my opinion on the evidence of democratic revolution which we are undergoing without I have examined America; my wish has been to find instruc- tendency given to the laws by the democracy of America, several witnesses. Here the reader must necessarily believeme having experienced the revolution itself. The emigrants who tion by which we may ourselves profit. Whoever should imag- which is abandoned almost without restraint to its instinc- upon my word. I could frequently have quoted names which fixed themselves on the shores of America in the beginning ine that I have intended to write a panegyric will perceive tive propensities, and to exhibit the course it prescribes to are either known to him, or which deserve to be so, in proof of the seventeenth century severed the democratic principle that such was not my design; nor has it been my object to the Government and the influence it exercises on affairs. I of what I advance; but I have carefully abstained from this from all the principles which repressed it in the old commu- advocate any form of government in particular, for I am of have sought to discover the evils and the advantages which it practice. A stranger frequently hears important truths at the nities of Europe, and transplanted it unalloyed to the New opinion that absolute excellence is rarely to be found in any produces. I have examined the precautions used by the Ameri- fire-side of his host, which the latter would perhaps conceal World. It has there been allowed to spread in perfect free- legislation; I have not even affected to discuss whether the cans to direct it, as well as those which they have not adopted, from the ear of friendship; he consoles himself with his guest dom, and to put forth its consequences in the laws by influ- social revolution, which I believe to be irresistible, is advan- and I have undertaken to point out the causes which enable for the silence to which he is restricted, and the shortness of encing the manners of the country. tageous or prejudicial to mankind; I have acknowledged this it to govern society. I do not know whether I have succeeded the traveller’s stay takes away all fear of his indiscretion. I 23 24 Tocqueville Democracy in America carefully noted every conversation of this nature as soon as it necessary sometimes to quit the rules of logic in active life, Chapter I: Exterior Form Of North America objects and the prodigious variety of scenes. This continent occurred, but these notes will never leave my writing-case; I such is not the case in discourse, and a man finds that almost is divided, almost equally, into two vast regions, one of which had rather injure the success of my statements than add my as many difficulties spring from inconsistency of language as Chapter Summary is bounded on the north by the Arctic Pole, and by the two name to the list of those strangers who repay the generous usually arise from inconsistency of conduct. great oceans on the east and west. It stretches towards the hospitality they have received by subsequent chagrin and I conclude by pointing out myself what many readers will North America divided into two vast regions, one inclining south, forming a triangle whose irregular sides meet at length annoyance. consider the principal defect of the work. This book is writ- towards the Pole, the other towards the Equator – Valley of below the great lakes of Canada. The second region begins I am aware that, notwithstanding my care, nothing will be ten to favor no particular views, and in composing it I have the Mississippi – Traces of the Revolutions of the Globe – where the other terminates, and includes all the remainder easier than to criticise this book, if anyone ever chooses to entertained no designs of serving or attacking any party; I Shore of the Atlantic Ocean where the English Colonies were of the continent. The one slopes gently towards the Pole, the criticise it. Those readers who may examine it closely will have undertaken not to see differently, but to look further founded -Difference in the appearance of North and of South other towards the Equator. discover the fundamental idea which connects the several than parties, and whilst they are busied for the morrow I America at the time of their Discovery – Forests of North The territory comprehended in the first region descends parts together. But the diversity of the subjects I have had to have turned my thoughts to the Future. America – Prairies -Wandering Tribes of Natives – Their out- towards the north with so imperceptible a slope that it may treat is exceedingly great, and it will not be difficult to op- ward appearance, manners, and language – Traces of an un- almost be said to form a level plain. Within the bounds of pose an isolated fact to the body of facts which I quote, or an known people. this immense tract of country there are neither high moun- isolated idea to the body of ideas I put forth. I hope to be tains nor deep valleys. Streams meander through it irregu- read in the spirit which has guided my labors, and that my Exterior Form Of North America larly: great rivers mix their currents, separate and meet again, book may be judged by the general impression it leaves, as I disperse and form vast marshes, losing all trace of their chan- have formed my own judgment not on any single reason, North America presents in its external form certain general nels in the labyrinth of waters they have themselves created; but upon the mass of evidence. It must not be forgotten that features which it is easy to discriminate at the first glance. A and thus, at length, after innumerable windings, fall into the the author who wishes to be understood is obliged to push sort of methodical order seems to have regulated the separa- Polar Seas. The great lakes which bound this first region are all his ideas to their utmost theoretical consequences, and tion of land and water, mountains and valleys. A simple, but not walled in, like most of those in the Old World, between often to the verge of what is false or impracticable; for if it be grand, arrangement is discoverable amidst the confusion of hills and rocks. Their banks are flat, and rise but a few feet 25 26 Tocqueville Democracy in America above the level of their waters; each of them thus forming a The Mississippi takes its source above the limit of the two their tributary streams. among which a few plants force their growth, and give the vast bowl filled to the brim. The slightest change in the struc- great regions of which I have spoken, not far from the high- The valley which is watered by the Mississippi seems appearance of a green field covered with the ruins of a vast ture of the globe would cause their waters to rush either to- est point of the table-land where they unite. Near the same formed to be the bed of this mighty river, which, like a god edifice. These stones and this sand discover, on examina- wards the Pole or to the tropical sea. spot rises another river,* which empties itself into the Polar of antiquity, dispenses both good and evil in its course. On tion, a perfect analogy with those which compose the arid The second region is more varied on its surface, and better seas. The course of the Mississippi is at first dubious: it winds the shores of the stream nature displays an inexhaustible fer- and broken summits of the Rocky Mountains. The flood of suited for the habitation of man. Two long chains of mountains several times towards the north, from whence it rose; and at tility; in proportion as you recede from its banks, the powers waters which washed the soil to the bottom of the valley divide it from one extreme to the other; the Alleghany ridge length, after having been delayed in lakes and marshes, it of vegetation languish, the soil becomes poor, and the plants afterwards carried away portions of the rocks themselves; and takes the form of the shores of the Atlantic Ocean; the other is flows slowly onwards to the south. Sometimes quietly glid- that survive have a sickly growth. Nowhere have the great these, dashed and bruised against the neighboring cliffs, were parallel with the Pacific. The space which lies between these ing along the argillaceous bed which nature has assigned to convulsions of the globe left more evident traces than in the left scattered like wrecks at their feet.* The valley of the Mis- two chains of mountains contains 1,341,649 square miles.* Its it, sometimes swollen by storms, the Mississippi waters 2,500 valley of the Mississippi; the whole aspect of the country sissippi is, upon the whole, the most magnificent dwelling- surface is therefore about six times as great as that of France. miles in its course.** At the distance of 1,364 miles from its shows the powerful effects of water, both by its fertility and place prepared by God for man’s abode; and yet it may be This vast territory, however, forms a single valley, one side of mouth this river attains an average depth of fifteen feet; and by its barrenness. The waters of the primeval ocean accumu- said that at present it is but a mighty desert. which descends gradually from the rounded summits of the it is navigated by vessels of 300 tons burden for a course of lated enormous beds of vegetable mould in the valley, which On the eastern side of the Alleghanies, between the base Alleghanies, while the other rises in an uninterrupted course nearly 500 miles. Fifty-seven large navigable rivers contrib- they levelled as they retired. Upon the right shore of the river of these mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there lies a long towards the tops of the Rocky Mountains. At the bottom of the ute to swell the waters of the Mississippi; amongst others, are seen immense plains, as smooth as if the husbandman ridge of rocks and sand, which the sea appears to have left valley flows an immense river, into which the various streams the Missouri, which traverses a space of 2,500 miles; the Ar- had passed over them with his roller. As you approach the behind as it retired. The mean breadth of this territory does issuing from the mountains fall from all parts. In memory of kansas of 1,300 miles, the Red River 1,000 miles, four whose mountains the soil becomes more and more unequal and not exceed one hundred miles; but it is about nine hundred their native land, the French formerly called this river the St. course is from 800 to 1,000 miles in length, viz., the Illinois, sterile; the ground is, as it were, pierced in a thousand places miles in length. This part of the American continent has a Louis. The Indians, in their pompous language, have named it the St. Peter’s, the St. Francis, and the Moingona; besides a by primitive rocks, which appear like the bones of a skeleton soil which offers every obstacle to the husbandman, and its the Father of Waters, or the Mississippi. countless multitude of rivulets which unite from all parts whose flesh is partly consumed. The surface of the earth is vegetation is scanty and unvaried. * The Red River. covered with a granite sand and huge irregular masses of stone, *See Appendix, A. *Darby’s “View of the United States.” **Warden’s “Description of the United States.” 27 28 Tocqueville Democracy in America Upon this inhospitable coast the first united efforts of hu- the ocean. Every object which met the sight, in this enchant- wide tracts of sand. The foliage of its woods was dark and To the east of the great river, the woods almost disappeared; man industry were made. The tongue of arid land was the ing region, seemed prepared to satisfy the wants or contrib- gloomy, for they were composed of firs, larches, evergreen in their stead were seen prairies of immense extent. Whether cradle of those English colonies which were destined one ute to the pleasures of man. Almost all the trees were loaded oaks, wild olive-trees, and laurels. Beyond this outer belt lay Nature in her infinite variety had denied the germs of trees the thick shades of the central forest, where the largest trees to these fertile plains, or whether they had once been cov- day to become the United States of America. The centre of with nourishing fruits, and those which were useless as food which are produced in the two hemispheres grow side by ered with forests, subsequently destroyed by the hand of man, power still remains here; whilst in the backwoods the true delighted the eye by the brilliancy and variety of their colors. side. The plane, the catalpa, the sugar- maple, and the Vir- is a question which neither tradition nor scientific research elements of the great people to whom the future control of In groves of fragrant lemon-trees, wild figs, flowering myrtles, ginian poplar mingled their branches with those of the oak, has been able to resolve. the continent belongs are gathering almost in secrecy together. acacias, and oleanders, which were hung with festoons of the beech, and the lime. In these, as in the forests of the Old These immense deserts were not, however, devoid of hu- When the Europeans first landed on the shores of the West various climbing plants, covered with flowers, a multitude World, destruction was perpetually going on. The ruins of man inhabitants. Some wandering tribes had been for ages Indies, and afterwards on the coast of South America, they of birds unknown in Europe displayed their bright plumage, vegetation were heaped upon each other; but there was no scattered among the forest shades or the green pastures of thought themselves transported into those fabulous regions glittering with purple and azure, and mingled their warbling laboring hand to remove them, and their decay was not rapid the prairie. From the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the delta of which poets had sung. The sea sparkled with phosphoric with the harmony of a world teeming with life and motion.* enough to make room for the continual work of reproduc- of the Mississippi, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, light, and the extraordinary transparency of its waters dis- Underneath this brilliant exterior death was concealed. But tion. Climbing plants, grasses, and other herbs forced their these savages possessed certain points of resemblance which covered to the view of the navigator all that had hitherto the air of these climates had so enervating an influence that way through the mass of dying trees; they crept along their bore witness of their common origin; but at the same time been hidden in the deep abyss.* Here and there appeared man, absorbed by present enjoyment, was rendered regard- bending trunks, found nourishment in their dusty cavities, they differed from all other known races of men:* they were and a passage beneath the lifeless bark. Thus decay gave its *With the progress of discovery some resemblance has been found little islands perfumed with odoriferous plants, and resem- less of the future. assistance to life, and their respective productions were to exist between the physical conformation, the language, and the bling baskets of flowers floating on the tranquil surface of North America appeared under a very different aspect; there mingled together. The depths of these forests were gloomy habits of the Indians of North America, and those of the Tongous, *Malte Brun tells us (vol. v. p. 726) that the water of the everything was grave, serious, and solemn: it seemed created and obscure, undirected in their course by human industry, MThaen ltacnhdo uosc,c Mupoiendg bolys ,t hTeasret atrrsib, aens ids ontohte vre wrya dnidsetarnintg f rtorimbe Bs eohf rAinsiga’s. Caribbean Sea is so transparent that corals and fish are dis- to be the domain of intelligence, as the South was that of preserved in them a constant moisture. It was rare to meet Strait, which allows of the supposition, that at a remote period cernible at a depth of sixty fathoms. The ship seemed to float sensual delight. A turbulent and foggy ocean washed its with flowers, wild fruits, or birds beneath their shades. The they gave inhabitants to the desert continent of America. But this itnh roaiur,g hth teh en carvyisgtaatl oflro bodec, aamnde bgeihdedlyd saus bhmisa reiynee gpaerndeetnras,t eodr shores. It was girt round by a belt of granite rocks, or by fall of a tree overthrown by age, the rushing torrent of a cata- iMs aa lpteo iBnrtu wnh, ivcohl .h va.;s tnhoet wyeotr kbse eonf Hcleuamrlby oelldutc;i dFaistcehde br,y “ sCcioennjceec.t Sueree beds of shells, or gilded fishes gliding among tufts and thick- ract, the lowing of the buffalo, and the howling of the wind sur l’Origine des Americains”; Adair, “History of the American ets of seaweed. *See Appendix, B. were the only sounds which broke the silence of nature. Indians.” 29 30 Tocqueville Democracy in America neither white like the Europeans, nor yellow like most of the The Indian was indebted to no one but himself; his virtues, This unfortunate effect of the disparity of conditions is produced no great impression when they landed upon the Asiatics, nor black like the negroes. Their skin was reddish his vices, and his prejudices were his own work; he had grown not observable in savage life: the Indians, although they are shores of North America; their presence engendered neither ignorant and poor, are equal and free. At the period when brown, their hair long and shining, their lips thin, and their up in the wild independence of his nature. envy nor fear. What influence could they possess over such Europeans first came among them the natives of North cheekbones very prominent. The languages spoken by the If, in polished countries, the lowest of the people are rude America were ignorant of the value of riches, and indifferent men as we have described? The Indian could live without North American tribes are various as far as regarded their and uncivil, it is not merely because they are poor and igno- to the enjoyments which civilized man procures to himself wants, suffer without complaint, and pour out his death- words, but they were subject to the same grammatical rules. rant, but that, being so, they are in daily contact with rich by their means. Nevertheless there was nothing coarse in their song at the stake.* Like all the other members of the great demeanor; they practised an habitual reserve and a kind of These rules differed in several points from such as had been and enlightened men. The sight of their own hard lot and of human family, these savages believed in the existence of a aristocratic politeness. Mild and hospitable when at peace, observed to govern the origin of language. The idiom of the their weakness, which is daily contrasted with the happiness though merciless in war beyond any known degree of hu- better world, and adored under different names, God, the Americans seemed to be the product of new combinations, and power of some of their fellow-creatures, excites in their man ferocity, the Indian would expose himself to die of hun- creator of the universe. Their notions on the great intellec- and bespoke an effort of the understanding of which the hearts at the same time the sentiments of anger and of fear: ger in order to succor the stranger who asked admittance by tual truths were in general simple and philosophical.** Indians of our days would be incapable.* the consciousness of their inferiority and of their dependence night at the door of his hut; yet he could tear in pieces with Although we have here traced the character of a primitive his hands the still quivering limbs of his prisoner. The fa- The social state of these tribes differed also in many re- irritates while it humiliates them. This state of mind dis- people, yet it cannot be doubted that another people, more mous republics of antiquity never gave examples of more spects from all that was seen in the Old World. They seemed plays itself in their manners and language; they are at once unshaken courage, more haughty spirits, or more intractable civilized and more advanced in all respects, had preceded it to have multiplied freely in the midst of their deserts with- insolent and servile. The truth of this is easily proved by love of independence than were hidden in former times in the same regions. out coming in contact with other races more civilized than observation; the people are more rude in aristocratic coun- among the wild forests of the New World.* The Europeans An obscure tradition which prevailed among the Indians their own. Accordingly, they exhibited none of those indis- tries than elsewhere, in opulent cities than in rural districts. *We learn from President Jefferson’s “Notes upon Virginia,” p. to the north of the Atlantic informs us that these very tribes tinct, incoherent notions of right and wrong, none of that In those places where the rich and powerful are assembled 148, that among the Iroquois, when attacked by a superior force, *See “Histoire de la Louisiane,” by Lepage Dupratz; Charlevoix, aged men refused to fly or to survive the destruction of their coun- “Histoire de la Nouvelle France”; “Lettres du Rev. G. Hecwelder;” deep corruption of manners, which is usually joined with together the weak and the indigent feel themselves oppressed try; and they braved death like the ancient Romans when their “Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,” v. I; ignorance and rudeness among nations which, after advanc- by their inferior condition. Unable to perceive a single chance capital was sacked by the Gauls. Further on, p. 150, he tells us Jefferson’s “Notes on Virginia,” pp. 135-190. What is said by ing to civilization, have relapsed into a state of barbarism. of regaining their equality, they give up to despair, and allow that there is no example of an Indian who, having fallen into the Jefferson is of especial weight, on account of the personal merit of hands of his enemies, begged for his life; on the contrary, the cap- the writer, of his peculiar position, and of the matter-of-fact age in themselves to fall below the dignity of human nature. tive sought to obtain death at the hands of his conquerors by the which he lived. *See Appendix, C. use of insult and provocation. **See Appendix, D. 31 32 Tocqueville Democracy in America formerly dwelt on the west side of the Mississippi. Along the haps there is not one which has not left behind it some tomb prepared to be the abode of a great nation, yet unborn. Chapter I: Exterior Form Of North America banks of the Ohio, and throughout the central valley, there in memory of its passage! The most durable monument of In that land the great experiment was to be made, by civi- are frequently found, at this day, tumuli raised by the hands human labor is that which recalls the wretchedness and noth- lized man, of the attempt to construct society upon a new Chapter Summary of men. On exploring these heaps of earth to their centre, it ingness of man. basis; and it was there, for the first time, that theories hith- is usual to meet with human bones, strange instruments, Although the vast country which we have been describing erto unknown, or deemed impracticable, were to exhibit a North America divided into two vast regions, one inclining arms and utensils of all kinds, made of metal, or destined for was inhabited by many indigenous tribes, it may justly be spectacle for which the world had not been prepared by the towards the Pole, the other towards the Equator – Valley of purposes unknown to the present race. The Indians of our said at the time of its discovery by Europeans to have formed history of the past. the Mississippi – Traces of the Revolutions of the Globe – time are unable to give any information relative to the his- one great desert. The Indians occupied without possessing Shore of the Atlantic Ocean where the English Colonies were tory of this unknown people. Neither did those who lived it. It is by agricultural labor that man appropriates the soil, founded -Difference in the appearance of North and of South three hundred years ago, when America was first discovered, and the early inhabitants of North America lived by the pro- America at the time of their Discovery – Forests of North leave any accounts from which even an hypothesis could be duce of the chase. Their implacable prejudices, their uncon- America – Prairies -Wandering Tribes of Natives – Their out- formed. Tradition – that perishable, yet ever renewed monu- trolled passions, their vices, and still more perhaps their sav- ward appearance, manners, and language – Traces of an un- ment of the pristine world – throws no light upon the sub- age virtues, consigned them to inevitable destruction. The known people. ject. It is an undoubted fact, however, that in this part of the ruin of these nations began from the day when Europeans globe thousands of our fellow-beings had lived. When they landed on their shores; it has proceeded ever since, and we Exterior Form Of North America came hither, what was their origin, their destiny, their his- are now witnessing the completion of it. They seem to have tory, and how they perished, no one can tell. How strange been placed by Providence amidst the riches of the New North America presents in its external form certain general does it appear that nations have existed, and afterwards so World to enjoy them for a season, and then surrender them. features which it is easy to discriminate at the first glance. A completely disappeared from the earth that the remembrance Those coasts, so admirably adapted for commerce and in- sort of methodical order seems to have regulated the separa- of their very names is effaced; their languages are lost; their dustry; those wide and deep rivers; that inexhaustible valley tion of land and water, mountains and valleys. A simple, but glory is vanished like a sound without an echo; though per- of the Mississippi; the whole continent, in short, seemed grand, arrangement is discoverable amidst the confusion of 33 34 Tocqueville Democracy in America objects and the prodigious variety of scenes. This continent above the level of their waters; each of them thus forming a The Mississippi takes its source above the limit of the two The valley which is watered by the Mississippi seems is divided, almost equally, into two vast regions, one of which vast bowl filled to the brim. The slightest change in the struc- great regions of which I have spoken, not far from the highest formed to be the bed of this mighty river, which, like a god is bounded on the north by the Arctic Pole, and by the two ture of the globe would cause their waters to rush either to- point of the table-land where they unite. Near the same spot of antiquity, dispenses both good and evil in its course. On great oceans on the east and west. It stretches towards the wards the Pole or to the tropical sea. rises another river,* which empties itself into the Polar seas. the shores of the stream nature displays an inexhaustible fer- south, forming a triangle whose irregular sides meet at length The second region is more varied on its surface, and better The course of the Mississippi is at first dubious: it winds sev- tility; in proportion as you recede from its banks, the powers below the great lakes of Canada. The second region begins suited for the habitation of man. Two long chains of moun- eral times towards the north, from whence it rose; and at length, of vegetation languish, the soil becomes poor, and the plants where the other terminates, and includes all the remainder tains divide it from one extreme to the other; the Alleghany after having been delayed in lakes and marshes, it flows slowly that survive have a sickly growth. Nowhere have the great of the continent. The one slopes gently towards the Pole, the ridge takes the form of the shores of the Atlantic Ocean; the onwards to the south. Sometimes quietly gliding along the convulsions of the globe left more evident traces than in the other towards the Equator. other is parallel with the Pacific. The space which lies between argillaceous bed which nature has assigned to it, sometimes valley of the Mississippi; the whole aspect of the country The territory comprehended in the first region descends these two chains of mountains contains 1,341,649 square miles.* swollen by storms, the Mississippi waters 2,500 miles in its shows the powerful effects of water, both by its fertility and towards the north with so imperceptible a slope that it may Its surface is therefore about six times as great as that of France. course.**At the distance of 1,364 miles from its mouth this by its barrenness. The waters of the primeval ocean accumu- almost be said to form a level plain. Within the bounds of This vast territory, however, forms a single valley, one side of river attains an average depth of fifteen feet; and it is navigated lated enormous beds of vegetable mould in the valley, which this immense tract of country there are neither high moun- which descends gradually from the rounded summits of the by vessels of 300 tons burden for a course of nearly 500 miles. they levelled as they retired. Upon the right shore of the river tains nor deep valleys. Streams meander through it irregu- Alleghanies, while the other rises in an uninterrupted course Fifty-seven large navigable rivers contribute to swell the wa- are seen immense plains, as smooth as if the husbandman larly: great rivers mix their currents, separate and meet again, towards the tops of the Rocky Mountains. At the bottom of ters of the Mississippi; amongst others, the Missouri, which had passed over them with his roller. As you approach the disperse and form vast marshes, losing all trace of their chan- the valley flows an immense river, into which the various traverses a space of 2,500 miles; the Arkansas of 1,300 miles, mountains the soil becomes more and more unequal and nels in the labyrinth of waters they have themselves created; streams issuing from the mountains fall from all parts. In the Red River 1,000 miles, four whose course is from 800 to sterile; the ground is, as it were, pierced in a thousand places and thus, at length, after innumerable windings, fall into the memory of their native land, the French formerly called this 1,000 miles in length, viz., the Illinois, the St. Peter’s, the St. by primitive rocks, which appear like the bones of a skeleton Polar Seas. The great lakes which bound this first region are river the St. Louis. The Indians, in their pompous language, Francis, and the Moingona; besides a countless multitude of whose flesh is partly consumed. The surface of the earth is not walled in, like most of those in the Old World, between have named it the Father of Waters, or the Mississippi. rivulets which unite from all parts their tributary streams. covered with a granite sand and huge irregular masses of stone, hills and rocks. Their banks are flat, and rise but a few feet *Darby’s “View of the United States.” *The Red River. among which a few plants force their growth, and give the **Warden’s “Description of the United States.” 35 36 Tocqueville Democracy in America appearance of a green field covered with the ruins of a vast man industry were made. The tongue of arid land was the ute to the pleasures of man. Almost all the trees were loaded oaks, wild olive-trees, and laurels. Beyond this outer belt lay edifice. These stones and this sand discover, on examina- cradle of those English colonies which were destined one with nourishing fruits, and those which were useless as food the thick shades of the central forest, where the largest trees tion, a perfect analogy with those which compose the arid day to become the United States of America. The centre of delighted the eye by the brilliancy and variety of their colors. which are produced in the two hemispheres grow side by and broken summits of the Rocky Mountains. The flood of power still remains here; whilst in the backwoods the true In groves of fragrant lemon-trees, wild figs, flowering myrtles, side. The plane, the catalpa, the sugar-maple, and the Vir- waters which washed the soil to the bottom of the valley elements of the great people to whom the future control of acacias, and oleanders, which were hung with festoons of ginian poplar mingled their branches with those of the oak, afterwards carried away portions of the rocks themselves; and the continent belongs are gathering almost in secrecy together. various climbing plants, covered with flowers, a multitude the beech, and the lime. In these, as in the forests of the Old these, dashed and bruised against the neighboring cliffs, were When the Europeans first landed on the shores of the West of birds unknown in Europe displayed their bright plumage, World, destruction was perpetually going on. The ruins of left scattered like wrecks at their feet.* The valley of the Mis- Indies, and afterwards on the coast of South America, they glittering with purple and azure, and mingled their warbling vegetation were heaped upon each other; but there was no sissippi is, upon the whole, the most magnificent dwelling- thought themselves transported into those fabulous regions with the harmony of a world teeming with life and motion.* laboring hand to remove them, and their decay was not rapid place prepared by God for man’s abode; and yet it may be of which poets had sung. The sea sparkled with phosphoric Underneath this brilliant exterior death was concealed. But enough to make room for the continual work of reproduc- said that at present it is but a mighty desert. light, and the extraordinary transparency of its waters dis- the air of these climates had so enervating an influence that tion. Climbing plants, grasses, and other herbs forced their On the eastern side of the Alleghanies, between the base covered to the view of the navigator all that had hitherto man, absorbed by present enjoyment, was rendered regard- way through the mass of dying trees; they crept along their of these mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there lies a long been hidden in the deep abyss.* Here and there appeared less of the future. bending trunks, found nourishment in their dusty cavities, ridge of rocks and sand, which the sea appears to have left little islands perfumed with odoriferous plants, and resem- North America appeared under a very different aspect; there and a passage beneath the lifeless bark. Thus decay gave its behind as it retired. The mean breadth of this territory does bling baskets of flowers floating on the tranquil surface of everything was grave, serious, and solemn: it seemed created assistance to life, and their respective productions were not exceed one hundred miles; but it is about nine hundred the ocean. Every object which met the sight, in this enchant- to be the domain of intelligence, as the South was that of mingled together. The depths of these forests were gloomy miles in length. This part of the American continent has a ing region, seemed prepared to satisfy the wants or contrib- sensual delight. A turbulent and foggy ocean washed its and obscure, and a thousand rivulets, undirected in their soil which offers every obstacle to the husbandman, and its *Malte Brun tells us (vol. v. p. 726) that the water of the Carib- shores. It was girt round by a belt of granite rocks, or by course by human industry, preserved in them a constant vegetation is scanty and unvaried. bean Sea is so transparent that corals and fish are discernible at a wide tracts of sand. The foliage of its woods was dark and moisture. It was rare to meet with flowers, wild fruits, or Upon this inhospitable coast the first united efforts of hu- depth of sixty fathoms. The ship seemed to float in air, the naviga- gloomy, for they were composed of firs, larches, evergreen birds beneath their shades. The fall of a tree overthrown by tor became giddy as his eye penetrated through the crystal flood, *See Appendix, A. and beheld submarine gardens, or beds of shells, or gilded fishes *See Appendix, B. age, the rushing torrent of a cataract, the lowing of the buf- gliding among tufts and thickets of seaweed. 37 38 Tocqueville Democracy in America falo, and the howling of the wind were the only sounds which neither white like the Europeans, nor yellow like most of the The Indian was indebted to no one but himself; his virtues, This unfortunate effect of the disparity of conditions is broke the silence of nature. Asiatics, nor black like the negroes. Their skin was reddish his vices, and his prejudices were his own work; he had grown not observable in savage life: the Indians, although they are To the east of the great river, the woods almost disappeared; ignorant and poor, are equal and free. At the period when brown, their hair long and shining, their lips thin, and their up in the wild independence of his nature. in their stead were seen prairies of immense extent. Whether Europeans first came among them the natives of North Nature in her infinite variety had denied the germs of trees cheekbones very prominent. The languages spoken by the If, in polished countries, the lowest of the people are rude America were ignorant of the value of riches, and indifferent to these fertile plains, or whether they had once been cov- North American tribes are various as far as regarded their and uncivil, it is not merely because they are poor and igno- to the enjoyments which civilized man procures to himself ered with forests, subsequently destroyed by the hand of man, words, but they were subject to the same grammatical rules. rant, but that, being so, they are in daily contact with rich by their means. Nevertheless there was nothing coarse in their is a question which neither tradition nor scientific research These rules differed in several points from such as had been and enlightened men. The sight of their own hard lot and of demeanor; they practised an habitual reserve and a kind of has been able to resolve. aristocratic politeness. Mild and hospitable when at peace, observed to govern the origin of language. The idiom of the their weakness, which is daily contrasted with the happiness These immense deserts were not, however, devoid of hu- though merciless in war beyond any known degree of hu- man inhabitants. Some wandering tribes had been for ages Americans seemed to be the product of new combinations, and power of some of their fellow-creatures, excites in their man ferocity, the Indian would expose himself to die of hun- scattered among the forest shades or the green pastures of and bespoke an effort of the understanding of which the hearts at the same time the sentiments of anger and of fear: ger in order to succor the stranger who asked admittance by the prairie. From the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the delta Indians of our days would be incapable.* the consciousness of their inferiority and of their dependence night at the door of his hut; yet he could tear in pieces with of the Mississippi, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, The social state of these tribes differed also in many re- irritates while it humiliates them. This state of mind dis- his hands the still quivering limbs of his prisoner. The fa- these savages possessed certain points of resemblance which spects from all that was seen in the Old World. They seemed plays itself in their manners and language; they are at once mous republics of antiquity never gave examples of more bore witness of their common origin; but at the same time unshaken courage, more haughty spirits, or more intractable they differed from all other known races of men:* they were to have multiplied freely in the midst of their deserts with- insolent and servile. The truth of this is easily proved by love of independence than were hidden in former times *With the progress of discovery some resemblance has been found to out coming in contact with other races more civilized than observation; the people are more rude in aristocratic coun- among the wild forests of the New World. *i The Europeans exist between the physical conformation, the language, and the habits their own. Accordingly, they exhibited none of those indis- tries than elsewhere, in opulent cities than in rural districts. *We learn from President Jefferson’s “Notes upon Virginia,” p. of the Indians of North America, and those of the Tongous, tinct, incoherent notions of right and wrong, none of that In those places where the rich and powerful are assembled 148, that among the Iroquois, when attacked by a superior force, Mantchous, Mongols, Tartars, and other wandering tribes of Asia. aged men refused to fly or to survive the destruction of their coun- The land occupied by these tribes is not very distant from Behring’s deep corruption of manners, which is usually joined with together the weak and the indigent feel themselves oppressed try; and they braved death like the ancient Romans when their Strait, which allows of the supposition, that at a remote period they ignorance and rudeness among nations which, after advanc- by their inferior condition. Unable to perceive a single chance capital was sacked by the Gauls. Further on, p. 150, he tells us gave inhabitants to the desert continent of America. But this is a point ing to civilization, have relapsed into a state of barbarism. of regaining their equality, they give up to despair, and allow that there is no example of an Indian who, having fallen into the which has not yet been clearly elucidated by science. See Malte Brun, hands of his enemies, begged for his life; on the contrary, the cap- vol. v.; the works of Humboldt; Fischer, “Conjecture sur l’Origine des *See Appendix, C. themselves to fall below the dignity of human nature. tive sought to obtain death at the hands of his conquerors by the Americains”; Adair, “History of the American Indians.” use of insult and provocation. 39 40