Forthcoming in Apeiron. This is an author’s pre-print; please cite the published version. The published version is available at the Apeiron (De Gruyter) website: http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/apeiron.ahead-of-print/apeiron-2014-0017/apeiron-2014-0017.xml DOI: 10.1515/apeiron-2014-0017 Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric: Rhetoric, the Subalternate Sciences, and Boundary Crossing Marcus P. Adams University at Albany, SUNY Department of Philosophy, HU 257 Albany, NY 12222 USA Webpage: www.marcuspadams.com Abstract The ways in which the Aristotelian sciences are related to each other has been discussed in the literature, with some focus on the subalternate sciences. While it is acknowledged that Aristotle, and Plato as well, was concerned as well with how the arts were related to one another, less attention has been paid to Aristotle’s views on relationships among the arts. In this paper, I argue that Aristotle’s account of the subalternate sciences helps shed light on how Aristotle saw the art of rhetoric relating to dialectic and politics. Initial motivation for comparing rhetoric with the subalternate sciences is Aristotle’s use of the language of boundary transgression, germane to the Posterior Analytics, when discussing rhetoric’s boundaries, as well as the language of “over” and “under” found in APo. First, I discuss three passages in Rhetoric Book I and argue that Garver’s (1988) account cannot be correct. Second, I discuss the subalternate sciences, especially focusing on optics and the distinction between “unqualified” optics and mathematical optics. Third, I discuss rhetoric’s dependence on both dialectic and politics. Introduction The ways in which Aristotelian sciences are related to each other has been discussed in the literature, with some focus on the subalternate sciences such as optics, harmonics, mechanics, and astronomy (e.g., Lennox 1986; McKirahan 1978). While it is acknowledged that Aristotle, Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric and Plato as well, was concerned with how the arts (te/xnai) were related to one another (McKirahan 1978, 197-198), less attention has been paid to Aristotle’s views on relationships among the arts. On such relationships, John Cooper (1975, 14-15) has argued that some arts like rhetoric are subordinate to others like statesmanship, because the latter use the results of the former as a means (likewise McKirahan 1978, 197). Although Cooper correctly identifies Aristotle’s claim that rhetoric is “under” politics, or statesmanship, (see EN 1094b2-5), this is not all Aristotle has to say about the relationship between rhetoric, dialectic, and politics. In this paper, I argue that Aristotle’s account of the subalternate sciences will help shed light on how Aristotle saw the art of rhetoric relating to dialectic and to politics; for both, rhetoric is said to be an offshoot (1356a22-35). Specifically, I will argue that Aristotle’s discussion of whether there are two or three distinct sciences involved in the subordinate relationship (cf. Lennox 1986, 46-47) will be useful to compare to what Aristotle says about rhetoric. I also argue that Garver’s (1988) interpretation of the boundary around rhetoric cannot be correct and, if it were correct, would commit Aristotle to views that we find in the Gorgias that criticize rhetoric’s status. Initial motivation for comparing rhetoric with the subalternate sciences is Aristotle’s use of the language of boundary transgression that is germane to the Posterior Analytics (metabainei=n) when discussing rhetoric’s boundaries, as well as the language of “over” and “under” that one finds in APo. I will argue that Aristotle does not see these arts on the same model as the subalternate sciences; nonetheless, it will be useful to consider his discussion of the number of distinct sciences that are involved with subalternate science explanations. First, I will discuss three passages in Book I of the Rhetoric that relate to rhetoric’s boundary and argue that Garver’s (1988) account cannot be correct. Second, I will discuss the subalternate sciences, 2 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric especially focusing on optics and the distinction between “unqualified” optics and mathematical optics. Third, I will discuss rhetoric’s dependence on both dialectic and politics. Highlighting these features of rhetoric and its relationship to both dialectic and politics will show that Cooper’s and McKirahan’s account of the relationship does not appreciate the complex ways in which the offshoot, rhetoric, is related to dialectic and politics. 1. A Problem with Boundaries In three passages in Book I of the Rhetoric, Aristotle is concerned with demarcating rhetoric’s boundary from other disciplines, such as dialectic. These passages have attracted some attention in the literature because they discuss not only how one may transgress the boundary around rhetoric and enter into another discipline (Rhet I.2.19-22, 1358a1-30) but also because they speak about the disciplines to which rhetoric is intimately related. Aristotle describes rhetoric as “composed” (su&gkeitai) from (Rhet I.4.4-7, 1359b9-16) and “like an offshoot” (oi[on parafue/j) (Rhet I.2.7, 1356a22-35) of two distinct disciplines: dialectic and the part of politics concerned with character (th~j peri\ ta_ h!qh pragmatei/aj, 1356a22-35; th~j peri\ ta_ h!qh politikh~j, 1359b9-16). In this section, I first provide these passages and then outline and criticize Eugene Garver’s account of rhetoric’s boundary. Before discussing these passages, it may be useful to discuss one of Aristotle’s primary goals in the Rhetoric. This goal is to provide an account of the methodos of rhetoric (peri\ de\ au)th~j h!dh th~j meqo&dou peirw&meqa le/gein) (1355b23-26). After claiming that rhetoric is the “counterpart” (a)nti/strofoj) to dialectic (1354a1), Aristotle notes that all people have a share in both of them since everyone examines and maintains an argument (e0ceta&zein kai\ u(pe/xein lo&gon), i.e., the activities relating to dialectic, and everyone defends and accuses (a)pologei=sqai kai\ 3 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric kathgorei=n) others (1354a4-6), i.e., the activities relating to rhetoric. Everyday people without training in rhetoric who engage in these activities do so either at random (oi9 me\n ei0kh?=| tau~ta drw~sin) or through acquaintance from habit (dia_ sunh&qeian a)po_ e3cewj). Since it is possible in both ways (e0pei\ d' a)mfote/rwj e0nde/xetai) to succeed in persuading others, Aristotle argues that it is clear that a method—or more closely to the Greek, a way—can be provided for rhetoric (dh~lon o#ti ei1h a@n au)ta_ kai\ o(dw?| poei=n) (1354a6-8). Part of providing the methodos of rhetoric involves discovering and explicating the cause of persuasion. Aristotle claims that it is possible to observe the cause (th_n ai0ti/an qewrei=n e0nde/xetai) for why people succeed, or hit the mark (e0pitugxa&nousin), when they are trying to persuade others, whether they do so through acquaintance (dia_ sunh&qeian) or by accident (a)po_ tou~ au)toma&tou) (1354a9-11). That the Rhetoric is concerned with the cause of persuasion is clear from Aristotle’s later discussion of the differences between example and the enthymeme, both of which he claims are equally persuasive but the latter of which results in more cheering from crowds (qorubou~ntai de\ ma~llon oi9 e0nqumhmatikoi)/ . The cause of these two being equally persuasive and of enthymemes resulting in more cheering (th_n d' ai0ti/an au)tw~n),1 Aristotle notes, is something we will discuss later (e0rou~men u#steron) (1356b24-25). An important distinction that Aristotle seems to make is between rhetoric qua faculty that authors write about and students learn and rhetoric qua practice. The work or function of rhetoric qua faculty is not merely to persuade (o#ti ou) to_ pei=sai e1rgon au)th~j) in a given case; rather, the work of rhetoric is an ability or capacity (du/namij) that allows one “to see the persuasive facts about each thing” in any given situation (to_ i0dei=n ta_ u(pa&rxonta piqana_ peri\ e3kaston) 1 Kassel marks au)tw~n as additamenta aliena; however, understanding Aristotle as concerned both with the cause of the two being equally persuasive and enthymemes resulting in more cheering is a natural reading of the passage (and others read the passage this way, e.g., Kennedy 1991, 29). Aristotle discusses this later in Book II.20-24. 4 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric (1355b9-11).2 The work of rhetoric qua practice is concerned with proofs (pisteis), which are “the only things within the province of the art; everything else [which the other writers on rhetoric have given us] is an appendage (prosthekai) …enthymemes are the sw~ma th=j piste/wj” (on this last point, see Burnyeat 1994, 10-13). I will return to this distinction between rhetoric qua faculty and rhetoric qua practice throughout the paper. 1.1 Boundary Passages in the Rhetoric In the first relevant passage, Aristotle discusses the person who will be an effective rhetorician. This individual, he notes, must be skilled in logical reasoning, know how to perceive people’s characters and virtues, and also know a great deal about emotions, as the following extended quotation illustrates: Now, since proofs (ai9 pi/steij) are effected by these means, it is evident that, to be able to grasp them, a man must be capable of logical reasoning (tou= sullogi/sasqai duname/nou), of studying characters and the virtues (tou= qewrh=sai peri\ ta\ h)/qh kai\ ta\j a)reta\j), and thirdly the emotions (pa/qh) – the nature and character of each, its origin, and the manner in which it is produced. Thus, it appears that rhetoric is as it were an offshoot (oi[on parafue/j) of dialectic and of ethical studies (th~j peri\ ta_ h!qh pragmatei/aj), which may be reasonably called political (politikh/n). That is why rhetoric assumes the character of politics, and those who claim to possess it, partly from ignorance, partly from boastfulness, and partly from other human weaknesses, do the same. For, as we said at the outset, rhetoric is a sort of division or likeness of dialectic, since neither of them is a science that deals with the nature of any definite subject, but they are merely faculties (duna/meij) of furnishing arguments. (Rhet I.2.7, 1356a20-33). In the context immediately preceding this passage, Aristotle has just distinguished between three kinds of proofs that a rhetorician employs when speaking: the first depends on the speaker’s 2 Here Aristotle says that the same holds for medicine. For discussion of translating duna/mij in the Rhetoric, see Haskins (2013). Kennedy (Aristotle 1991) renders it as “ability,” while Freese (Aristotle 1926) and Barnes (Aristotle 1984) use “faculty.” Barnes also sometimes uses “practical faculty” (cf. Arisotle 1984, 2161; 1359b12). 5 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric character; the second on how the speaker places the hearer in a certain “frame of mind”; and the third on the speech itself, that is, what it seeks to demonstrate (1356a1-4). Aristotle’s comment on the relationship between rhetoric, dialectic, and the part of politics concerned with character is of most interest for the present topic. Rhetoric should be viewed as an “offshoot” of these two disciplines because of the diverse types of things that a skillful rhetorician must know as a practitioner of rhetoric. The second relevant passage has attracted the most attention of the three in the literature concerned with the demarcation of rhetoric from other disciplines. Garver (1988) focuses upon this passage and the final passage. But a very great difference between enthymemes has escaped the notice of nearly every one, although it also exists in the dialectical method of syllogisms. For some of them belong to rhetoric, some syllogisms only to dialectic, and others to other arts and faculties, some already existing and others not yet established. Therefore these individuals fail to notice this difference, and the more they fasten upon the subject matter in its proper sense (kai\ ma=llon a(pto/menoi kata\ tro/pon), the more they transgress the limits of rhetoric and dialectic (metabai/nousin e0c au)tw~n).3 But this will be clearer if stated at greater length. I mean by dialectical and rhetorical syllogisms those which are concerned with what we call “topics,” which may be applied alike to questions relating to the right, physics, politics, and many other things that differ in kind, such as the topic of the more or less, which will furnish syllogisms and enthymemes equally well for questions relating to the right, physics, or any other science whatever, although these subjects differ in kind. Specific topics on the other hand are derived from propositions which are peculiar to each species or genus of things; there are, for example, propositions about physics which can furnish neither enthymemes nor syllogisms about ethics, and there are propositions concerned with ethics which will be useless for furnishing conclusions about physics; and the same holds good in all cases. The first kind of topics will not make a man practically wise about any particular class of things, because they do not deal with any particular subject matter; but as to the specific topics, the happier a man is in his choice of propositions, the more he will unconsciously produce a science 3 I have adapted Grimaldi’s (1980a, 73) translation to deal with a minor textual matter. Kassel (1976) suggests that 1358a8-9 is corrupted (orationem mancam significavi) and includes “the hearers” (tou\j a)kroata\j) following te, which is missing in Freese’s (Aristotle 1926) edition (used by Garver 1988). Furthermore, Kassell (1976) argues that there is a lacuna in 1358a8 following tou\j a)kroata\j. This textual matter is inconsequential to my overall argument; I follow Grimaldi (1980a) here and below. 6 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric (e)pisth/mhn) quite different from dialectic and rhetoric. For if once he hits upon first principles (e0ntu/xh| a)rxai=j), it will no longer be dialectic or rhetoric, but that science whose principles he has arrived at (a)ll 0 e0kei/nh e1stai h[j e1xei ta\j a)rxa/j). (Rhet I.2.20-22, 1358a1-30) There is much going on in this passage, but a few relevant points will become clearer when I discuss Garver’s (1988) interpretation of this and the next passage. A key phrase singled out by most who are concerned with interpreting this passage is “the more they specialize in a subject, the more they transgress the limits of rhetoric and dialectic.” I will argue below that Aristotle is concerned with the way that a rhetorician treats facts from politics when he is making a speech, i.e., that the rhetorician cannot treat facts from political science in his speeches in the same way he would if he were engaging in political science. In other words, I will argue that Aristotle is concerned at this point with rhetoric qua practice. The third relevant passage is contained within Aristotle’s discussion of deliberative rhetoric, where he is concerned with “what kind of good and bad things the deliberative orator advises” (Rhet I.4, 1359a37ff). Although it is part of a discussion focused on one of the three kinds of rhetoric (i.e., deliberative, forensic, and epideictic; see Rhet I.3, 1358b7-9), what he says is about rhetoric in general since he seems to identify it as a summary of what he has already said earlier (o4per ga\r kai\ pro/teron ei0rhko/tej tugxa/nomen, a)lhqe/j e0stin, 1359b8-9), though he does provide a slightly different account than the passage immediately above: For what we have said before is true: that rhetoric is composed (su&gkeitai) of the sciences of logic (e1k te th~j a)nalutikh~j e0pisth&mhj)4 and of that branch of political science which is concerned with ethics (th~j peri\ ta_ h!qh politikh~j), and that it resembles partly dialectic and partly sophistical arguments. But in proportion as anyone endeavors to make of dialectic or rhetoric, not what they are, faculties (duna/meij), but sciences, to that extent he will, without knowing it, destroy their real nature, in thus altering their character, by crossing over (metabai/nein) into the domain of sciences, whose subjects are certain definite 4 Most commentators take e1k te th~j a)nalutikh~j e0pisth&mhj here to refer to dialectic and not the Analytics. 7 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric things (u(pokeimen/ wn tinw~n pragma&twn), not merely arguments (mh_ mo&non lo&gwn). (Rhet I.4.5-7, 1359b9-16) The key points in this passage and the preceding one that will be relevant to the discussion at hand are Aristotle’s description of rhetoric’s relationship to dialectic and the part of politics concerned with character, i.e., “composed of” and “offshoot of”, and Aristotle’s description of crossing (metabai/nein) the boundary from rhetoric into another discipline. I take it that we should understand Aristotle’s claim that the subject of rhetoric is “merely arguments” in 1359b16 as referring to rhetoric qua what people who write handbooks of rhetoric focus upon and what students learning rhetoric focus upon. That is, when learning how to be a skillful rhetorician from a handbook, one does not learn facts from political science. Instead, one learns ways of arguing and what types of emotions to appeal to in speeches. This is how one acquires the faculty of rhetoric whereby one can see which facts are persuasive and which aren’t; such a faculty, however, is not acquired by learning facts from politics or some other science. Others focusing on this passage, e.g., Garver (1988), have taken the phrase “merely arguments” to refer to the practice of rhetoric, which presents a number of problems for understanding what the practice of Aristotelian rhetoric would look like, as I will outline in the next section.5 1.2 Garver’s Account of Crossing Rhetoric’s Boundary Before discussing the passages provided above and Garver’s interpretation of them, it is first important to differentiate the present discussion from an ongoing discussion in the literature about Aristotelian rhetoric. This different, but related debate concerns whether rhetoric is a moral activity. The question under debate in this literature is whether there is an “essential linkage 5 Garver (1988, 383) understands lo/goj at 1359b16 as “words,” but understanding lo/goj as “arguments” seems more natural given the explicit connection in this passage, and elsewhere, between dialectic and rhetoric. I thank an anonymous referee of this journal for emphasizing this. 8 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric between [Aristotle’s] ethics and rhetoric” (Johnstone 1980, 1; see also Rowland & Womack 1985). Many have argued, strangely, that for Aristotle the two are completely disconnected and that rhetoric is concerned only with persuasion (see Johnstone 1980, n. 2 for examples). Though an important debate, this is an ancillary issue to the topic of the present paper since the answer one gives to that question does not decide the debate over whether Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a separate investigation from dialectic and politics. That is, one could think that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a moral activity while also thinking that he took it to be an independent investigation from dialectic and politics. One of Garver’s primary goals is to explain how rhetoric is different from other disciplines. Specifically, he highlights the following claims: first, that the more one specializes in a particular subject the more one transgresses “the limits of rhetoric and dialectic” (1358a9-10); and second, that when one tries to make dialectic and rhetoric into sciences (e0pisth/maj) and not the faculties that they are, one crosses over rhetoric’s boundary into the sciences, where the subjects are “certain definite things (u(pokeime/nwn tinw~n pragma&twn), not merely arguments (mh_ mo&non lo&gwn)” (1359b10-13). At first glance, this might make it seem that the person who follows Aristotle’s guidance in the Rhetoric will in his practice of rhetoric actively avoid having specialized knowledge and focus, instead, only upon the types of arguments that one might use to persuade people. What exactly focusing only upon arguments that would be persuasive to the exclusion of any specialized knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the state of the polis in which one is speaking) would look like when practicing rhetoric (i.e., when giving a speech) is one question, the answer of which is unclear to me. Whether this is Aristotle’s account is another. With regard to this second question, I will argue that this is not Aristotle’s view. Garver, however, argues that this is 9 Adams Demarcating Aristotelian Rhetoric how we should understand Aristotle’s account of the boundary of rhetoric, as the following quotation illustrates: In rhetoric one tries to make one’s discourse more and more secure from refutation, tries to make the audience’s assent to one's arguments as close to compulsory as possible, but to succeed fully is to cease being rhetorical […] (1988, 390). Garver calls this account one of “self-destructive success” (1988, 390). Garver’s point, were it correct, would place Aristotelian rhetoric on a paradoxical foundation. That is, to succeed, for example, as a deliberative rhetorician one must on the one hand know facts from the science of politics relating to the situation about which one will be speaking (as Aristotle admits and will be discussed below; see 1360a36-37) while on the other hand, on Garver’s (1988) interpretation the more one learns about that situation the more what one is doing will “cease being rhetorical.”6 Garver is not alone in this interpretation. James Allen argues that rhetoric (and here also dialectic) proceeds without “substantive specialized understanding” and that insofar as one “draws on such understanding, one leaves behind dialectic [and rhetoric]” (Allen 2007, 97). Beyond the difficulty this interpretation has with other passages in the Rhetoric and with the conceptual strangeness of saying that the best sort of rhetorician should know fewer facts and not more, Garver’s interpretation is quite similar to a view advanced against rhetoric in the Gorgias. Aristotle would reject any such identification, so briefly examining a few of the relevant passages in the Gorgias will be worthwhile to see where Garver’s interpretation goes astray. Rather than advocating Aristotle’s view described above, where rhetoric is an “offshoot” or “composed” of a part of politics, Socrates argues that “rhetoric is …the unreal image 6 Strangely, the passage where Aristotle discusses the numerous things the successful deliberative orator must know (1359b19ff) immediately follows the main passage from which Garver (1988) derives this interpretation, but Garver does not mention this passage in articulating his view. 10