Master’s Degree programme – Second Cycle (D.M. 270/2004) In European, American and Postcolonial Language and Literature Final Thesis In A Glass Darkly by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu “Green Tea”, “The Familiar”, “Mr. Justice Harbottle”. Supervisor Ch. Prof. Michela Vanon Assistant Supervisor Ch. Prof. Flavio Gregori Graduand Martina Cincotto Matriculation Number 833310 Academic Year 2014 / 2015 INDEX 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1 2. “GREEN TEA” ....................................................................................................................... 7 2. 1. SPECTRAL ILLUSIONS ............................................................................................... 17 2. 2. ITS EYES WERE NEVER OFF ME .............................................................................. 40 2. 3. A CHASM IN THE NARRATIVE ................................................................................. 54 3. “THE FAMILIAR” ............................................................................................................... 89 3. 1. PHANTOM STEPS ........................................................................................................ 94 3. 2. THE CALLOUS SCEPTICISM OF A CONFIRMED INFIDEL ................................. 108 3. 3. I WILL SEE YOU AS OFTEN AS I PLEASE ............................................................. 124 4. “MR. JUSTICE HARBOTTLE” ....................................................................................... 138 4. 1. A GREVIOUS WRONG .............................................................................................. 143 4. 2. THE COPY OF AN ILLUSION ................................................................................... 158 5. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 179 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 193 I In a Glass Darkly, London: Richard Bentley, 1872. First Edition II 1. INTRODUCTION In A Glass Darkly is a collection of three short-stories and two novellas by Anglo-Irish author Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu (1814 - 1873) published in 1872. Defined as “essentially ghost fiction with a dash of pseudo-scientific thought”1 these tales are presented as clinical case histories found among the papers of a German physician, Dr. Martin Hesselius. Written the year before Le Fanu’s death, In A Glass Darkly is the product of a subjectivity tormented by religious doubt and neurotic anxieties: it contains tales of individuals persecuted by retributive ghosts - "Green Tea ", "The Familiar ", "Mr. Justice Harbottle"; a mystery story of premature burial, "The Room in the Dragon Volant"; and the celebrated “Carmilla”, a novella featuring a female vampire preying upon a young lady. Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu was a rather prolific writer - publishing fourteen novels and even a greater number of ghost stories and tales of mystery - his career being driven mainly by economic adversities. He lived obscurely most of his life, his contribution to literature being recognized only a century after his death. He is nowadays renowned as a “a supreme specialist”2 of supernatural and mystery fiction: […] best of all are his highly personal stories of tortuous psychologies, of remarkable guilt and their hypostatization, of strange states of consciousness and unconsciousness, where the boundaries of the fanciful and the real swirl away into a mist of pain and terror.3 He was born in Dublin in 1814. The Huguenot heritage of the Le Fanus and the Gaelic 1 Cook, Michael. Detective Fiction and the Ghost Story: The Haunted Text. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. p. 16. 2 Cox M., Gilbert R.A. The Oxford Book of Victorian Ghost Stories. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. p. xviii. 3 Bleiler E.F. “Introduction” to Ghost Stories and Mysteries, New York: Dover Publication, 1975, p. iii. 1 ancestry of the Sheridans triggered in him “a particular sensitivity to the darker implications of a fractured society.”4 His father was a Church of Ireland clergyman, who suddenly lost his source income after the Tithe War broke out. Le Fanu spent his childhood first in Dublin and then in the countryside of Abington, where he came in direct contact with the Irish Catholics prone to insurrections and the use of violence. He studied law at Trinity College and was called to the bar in 1839 but he never practiced the profession, working instead as a writer for various newspapers and periodicals and becoming owner and editor of the Dublin University Magazine in 1840. His first collection of stories, Ghost Stories and Tales of Mystery, was published in 1851. Le Fanu lived in a politically complex period of Irish history: the Union Movement in the 1830s, the Tithe War which broke out in 1831 and the Famine Years of 1845-47, as well as the rebellion of 1848 Young Irelanders. Despite being sympathetic to the struggles of the Catholics, Le Fanu opposed the Reform Bill in 1832 and became a more radical Protestant in the 1840s opposing the revolutionists and Daniel O’Connell leadership. As a short- story writer and a novelist, “Le Fanu comes to stand as the representative of an isolated Protestant minority, haunted by the past, and increasingly besieged in the present by the growing sway of the Catholic middle classes, part of a specifically Irish Protestant gothic tradition.”5 After the premature death of his wife, Susanna Bennet, in 1858 Le Fanu progressively isolated himself from the social sphere turning into a reclusive and dedicating himself to the study of the Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg. Defined by McCormack as “one of literature’s eccentrics,”6 Le Fanu was known as Dublin’s “Invisible Prince”. As many 4 Sage, Victor. “Irish Gothic: Maturin and Le Fanu”, in A Companion to the Gothic edited by David Punter. Malden, MA : Blackwell, 2006. p. 81. 5 Daly, Nicholas, The Demographic Imagination and the Nineteenth-Century City, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. p. 85. 6 McCormack, W.J., Sheridan Le Fanu and Victorian England, Dublin: The Lilliput Press LTD, 1991, p. 5. 2 of his characters, Le Fanu had financial difficulties for most of his life and “spent the last ten years […] rewriting his earlier stories and presenting them as full-dress sensation novels for a predominantly English audience.”7 His last work, In a Glass Darkly, has been defined as “his greatest achievement”8: in conjunction with the novel Uncle Silas (1864), this collection is Le Fanu’s most mature work. This dissertation will take into consideration the first three stories of the collection. The reasons for this choice are to be found in the similarities between the tales: in the recurring plots and motifs, “Green Tea”, “The Familiar” and “Mr. Justice Harbottle” must be considered a cohesive unity. As extremely grim tales of persecuted individuals and suicide, these stories depict a world of punished infractions and mystical correspondent which scientific and rational models prove unable to fully explain. The title of the collection is in itself enigmatic. From the onset, the attention is focused on an antithesis: the glass, symbolic of optical transparency and clarity is contrasted to obscurity which stands for the inscrutable, the cryptic, the undetected. The title is a partial quotation of a Bible passage. The first epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians reads: “For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face; now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known.” Whereas on this earth human vision is limited and obfuscated by the screen of material possessions, the after-life will be a moment of revelation and luminous divine encounter: the incomplete quotation, then, reveals Le Fanu’s pessimistic world view. Moreover, the substitution of the preposition “through” with “in” is far from casual: it suggests an epistemological crisis and depicts a world of doubt, uncertainty and misrecognition, to “emphasize the limitations of our access to the world beyond the self 7 Sage, cit., p. 90. 8 Begnal, Michael H. Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1971. p. 38. 3 as befits a post-Kantian.”9 The Bible passage posits the glass as a deceptive screen of earthly falsities that the believer must surpass in order to meet God; on the other hand, it instills the hope for future clarity, a moment of revelation and comprehension: instinctive faith, despite optical obscurity or blindness, is ultimately rewarded. On the contrary, the partial quotation transposes the subject in search for clarity within the isolating confines of an obscure glass, a constraining space which prevents any such leap or any possible face to face encounter with God. In religious contexts, then, “the aspirant Christian now finds his attention trapped, or obscured, or obstructed, within what might have been thought the medium of successful vision.”10 The spiritual anxiety, however, seems to be founded upon a broader cognitive failure involving the subject: “the Bible-misquoting title suggests a lack of confidence in self- recognition. The self is seen but only in a glass darkly.”11 McCormack pauses on the meaning of “glass” as well: Even a casual consideration of the topic brings the realization that window-glass did not exist in New Testament times, that the ‘glass’ referred to was a mirror or looking-glass, reflecting not transparent. The Authorised Version of the Bible takes a liberty even by using ‘glass’ (the New Testament Greek is ‘esoptron’), for the mirrors of St Paul’s days were polished surfaces, metal for the most part.12 The titular glass, then, assumes a twofold significance. On one hand, it indicates the window: mediating between outside and inside, it provides a way out at the same time as it constitutes a way in for the threatening external forces. On the other hand, the glass is also a mirror, a close and self-referential system: in order for self-recognition to take 9 Milbank, Alison. “Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu: Gothic Grotesque and the Huguenot Inheritance”, in A Companion to Irish Literature, Volume One & Two, edited by J.M. Wright, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. p. 366. 10 McCormack, W.J. Dissolute Characters: Irish Literary History Through Balzac, Sheridan Le Fanu, Yeats, and Bowen. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993, p. 141. 11 Ibid., p. 142. 12 Ibid., p. 141. 4 place, the observer must be captured by the reflective surface, objectified in an image and trapped within the confines of the frame in ghastly isolation. Only in increments, and only in compromising way, is perception allow to work at all. In the three tales references to windows, reflections, optical illusions, looking-glasses, and lights are so recurrent that to reduce them to the status of mere aesthetic details would seriously limit the hermeneutic endeavour. "Green Tea ", "The Familiar ", "Mr. Justice Harbottle" revolve around visuality and question the shifting relations between the world and its observers: Le Fanu manifests an interest in the mechanics of the human eye, its potentiality of deception, for spiritual as well as psychological misrecognition. The skewed visual perception is in keeping with the Gothic mode: "one of the essential figure of the Gothic is its habit of distortion, as if looking through a badly made window."13 Distortion alters forms and bends shapes: the persecutory entities in these tales are, indeed, all affected by distortions in size. The haunting element, then, is not simply a matter of what the protagonists of these tales see, but rather how they see: the mode of perception is the central component of these three stories. The demarcation line between transparent and reflecting surfaces, between the window glass and the looking glass, is also the line which separates the two main interpretative models for the ghost story genre: either the source of horror is collocated outside, in the supernatural and hostile cosmos; or the haunting forces come from within, from the psyche of the subjects. A psychological reading of the tales in In A Glass Darkly shifts the focus on the mind, on the process by which fear - possibly even neurotic and psychotic disorders - are generated: “Le Fanu is wedded to a theory of projection to account for the haunting of men who call forth spirits to bear the parts of their own psyche which they 13 Punter, David. The Literature of Terror: A History of Gothic Fictions From 1765 To The Present Day. London: Longman, 1980. p. 200. 5 find unacceptable.”14 The character of opacity, then, pertains not the mirror but the observers, suggesting that “the unfortunate haunted subjects […] are, in beholding what seems most alien to them, actually seeing a dim reflection of their inner selves.”15 Inscrutability befits not only the fictional characters, but readers as well. The content of these tales is never transparent and hardly grants direct access to crystal clear meanings; it is not sufficient to simply look out the window; rather, the content is reflective in the sense that it necessitates a reflection. The following dissertation will attempt such an interpretative endeavour. “Green Tea”, “The Familiar” and “Mr. Justice Harbottle” will be individually analysed in the following sections: their thematic nucleuses will be explored and placed within the literary and cultural frames of the Victorian period. The focus will then be widened to include the philosophical, psychoanalytic and medical tools of modernity. Particular attention will be paid to the parallelisms between the three tales in order to unveil the direction of Le Fanu’s creative project. The fundamental argument is that while ghost stories seek to unsettle readers, in most cases refusing to provide a satisfying closure, nonetheless a hermeneutic strategy needs to and can be found: beyond the shock of horror, lies the intent to engage readers, to interrogate them rather than to simply terrify them. Behind the alienating narrative effect, there seems to hide a genuine interest in the multiple ways in which the surrounding world is seen and interpreted. 14 Milbank, Alison. Daughters of the House: Modes of the Gothic in Victorian Fiction. Basingtoke: Macmillan, 1992. p. 163. 15 Tingle, Catherine Mary. Symptomatic Writings: Prefigurations of Freudian Theories and Models of the Mind in the Fiction of Sheridan Le Fanu, Wilkie Collins and George Eliot. (Doctoral Dissertation) University of Leeds, September 2000. p. 38. 6 2. “GREEN TEA” First published in Charles Dickens's magazine All the Year Around in 1869 and later included in the collection In A Glass Darkly, “Green Tea” is Le Fanu’s best known story after “Carmilla”. Defined as “one among the best half-dozen ghost stories in the English language,”1 the tale tells the story of a clergyman, reverend Mr. Jennings, who is persecuted by a demonic monkey visible exclusively to him. With its fixed red eyes and hypnotic powers, the monkey torments the reverend by squatting over his bible, singing blasphemies and taking away his ability to pray and to work. These circumstances are revealed by Jennings exclusively to the narrator of the story, Dr. Martin Hesselius, a German physician. Gaining the reverend’s trust through his professed knowledge of metaphysics, Hesselius is first invited to Jennings’s study, where he discovers an annotated copy of Arcana Coelestia by Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, and later becomes the reverend’s trusted confidant. In one of their encounters, the physician learns that Jennings had been in the habit of consuming great quantities of green tea late at night while conducting a secret research into paganism: the reverend believes this research to be the cause of his current condition and sees in the persecuting monkey a spirit from hell sent to punish him for his indiscretions. Declaring Jennings’s ailment dependent on material causes, Hesselius promises to cure and to readily restore to health the clergyman, who meanwhile has abandoned his parish and has retired to an isolated house in the countryside. Despite the physician’s reassurances, however, Jennings commits suicide one night after trying and failing to get a hold of the mysteriously absent Hesselius. 1 Le Fanu, Joseph Sheridan. In a Glass Darkly. Introduction by V. S. Pritchett. London: John Lehmann, 1947, p. 8. 7