Decolonising the social sciences in the global South: Claude Ake and the praxis of knowledge production in Africa Jeremiah O. Arowosegbe ASC Working Paper 79 / 2008 PhD candidate in Political Science University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands Telephone +31-71-5273372 Fax +31-71-5273344 E-mail [email protected] Website http://www.ascleiden.nl © Jeremiah O. Arowosegbe, 2008 2 Decolonising the Social Sciences in the Global South: Claude Ake and the Praxis of Knowledge Production in Africa ∗ Jeremiah O. Arowosegbe Abstract South-driven initiatives on endogenous knowledge production owe a great debt to Claude Ake. Against this backdrop, this paper reviews the strengths and weaknesses of Ake’s account of the social sciences and knowledge production in Africa. It discusses his legacy and presents him as one of the most fertile and influential voices within the social science community in the continent. Being a political scientist with an unusually broad intellectual horizon and formation, the paper discusses Ake’s production, over the last four decades, of a wide-ranging body of works, which have been quite instructive not only for their theoretical sophistication, methodological rigour and analytical acuity, but also for being remarkable works of magisterial erudition, the products of an exceptionally great mind, written with a deftly profound authority, and also constituting a significant attempt to adapt the intellectual legacies of Marxist scholarship towards understanding the political economy and social history of contemporary Africa, from a broadly critical perspective. The leit motif in this paper is to establish the specific relevance of studying Ake’s works. Through examining the epistemological bases of theory, practice and policy in his works, this paper establishes an important area within the African social science, which has been positively affected by Ake’s intellectual involvement. Key words: Claude Ake, African social science, endogeneity, epistemology, knowledge production and post-Marxist scholarship. ∗ The author is a PhD Candidate in Political Science at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. In January – March 2008 he was a Visiting Fellow at the African Studies Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands. Earlier drafts of this paper were presented at the 2006 Social Science Conference entitled The Social Sciences in an African Context, organised by the Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA), in collaboration with the Social Sciences Network of South Africa (SSNSA) and the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), at the Birchwood Hotel and Conference Centre, Boksburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, from 27 to 30 September 2006; the 50th Anniversary Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association (ASA), on the theme, 21st Century Africa: Evolving Conceptions of Human Rights, at the Sheraton Hotels and Suites, New York, from 18 to 21 October 2007; the African Studies Centre, the University of Leiden, The Netherlands, on 4 March 2008; and the Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, The Netherlands, on 6 March 2008. The paper has also benefited from my discussion with researchers at the International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam, The Netherlands, on 11 March 2008 as well as with members of the research programme on Social Movements and Political Culture at the African Studies Centre in Leiden, The Netherlands. My benefactors are therefore too numerous to be mentioned individually, but the following have been particularly helpful. First is my supervisor at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, Professor Adigun Ajao B. Agbaje, under whose guidance this study was undertaken. I would also like to thank Professors Jon Abbink, Partha Chatterjee and Dr. Stephen Ellis for their critical comments and suggestions on the work. Needless to say, all views here are my own and the usual caveat about responsibility for errors holds. My special thanks also go to Ann Reeves and Marieke van Winden for their research and secretarial assistance in the production of this paper. 3 Introduction1 Capitalism, Marx said, was the first universal social form, at least the first form capable of a possible universality. It imposed, on most people with whom it came in touch, certain peculiar forms of suffering. These several sufferings at the various frontiers of capitalism gave rise to critiques in which those who suffered at its hands tried to make sense of their history. In a sense, each critique analysed and held up for criticism aspects of suffering related to capitalism which were opaque, unperceived and unreported to the others. But as critiques they are potentially connectable; they, as it were, waited to meet each other. It is only now, in the writing of history, that such a meeting is possible. In this, the critique of an aggressive, uncritical, all-conquering rationalist colonialism by the early nationalists is a necessary part. And it is only when these critiques are stitched together that a true map of the unhappy consciousness of humanity, when capitalism reigned, can be put together (Kaviraj, 1992: 34). Claude Ake (1939-1996) is one of Africa’s foremost political philosophers who worked extensively in the area of political theory, and made original and uniquely perceptible contributions to the political economy of democracy and development in the continent. In addition, he is a major praxiological figure from whose works the real world in the continent can best be understood. His writings thus constitute a significant entry point not just for understanding contemporary Africa, but also for rethinking globalisation, modernity and other larger theoretical concerns, which are shared by post-colonial theorists throughout the world. The recurring topicality and significance of his contributions to African political thought assuredly place him in the pantheon of great African political thinkers, alongside such luminaries as Cheikh Anta Diop, Kwasi Wiredu and Samir Amin, among others (Martin 1996 and Osha 2005)2. Ake’s works are particularly instructive given his successful 1 This paper is an excerpt from my PhD thesis. I wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar, Senegal, which funded the writing of the thesis through its Small Grants Programme for Thesis Writing in October 2007. My appreciation also goes to the South-South Exchange Programme for Research on the History of Development (SEPHIS), at the International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam, The Netherlands, for funding my one-year research training programme as a SEPHIS Fellow at the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta (CSSSC), India, from July 2006 to July 2007. 2 Ake is to be functionally differentiated from another category of African thinkers, namely, those who were neither scholars nor theorists. In this sense, we must note that Ake was both a writer and a theorist, who being a scholar and an activist cannot be classified in the same mode of thinkers like Frantz Fanon, Julius M. K. Nyerere, Amilcar L. Cabral, Kwame Nkrumah, Patrice Lumumba and Ruth First, among others. Unlike Ake, these African nationalists and pan-African heroes were intellectual activists who emerged originally as unlikely candidates but later became leaders and spokespersons of their people. Their assignment as vanguards of the nationalist cause was historically imposed on them by the prevailing colonial realities of their time. In most cases, they emerged as revolutionary leaders in their time, mainly because they rejected the option of escaping from the realities and sufferings of their people, but elected instead, to return to the source of their being 4 application of the radical theory in illuminating the African condition, and as a guide to political action (Harris, 2005: 86 and Oculli, 1997: 29).3 He has made penetrating contributions, which although unpopular in the past are instructive points of departure today. As such, whatever was the focus of his writings, they are bound to provoke widespread intellectual interest and attention. This paper discusses the contribution of the late Professor Claude Ake to the enterprise of knowledge production in Africa. In doing this, it provides an insight into the making of his life, career and scholarship. It traces the historical factors, experiences and contours which shaped his personality, worldview and writings. It captures the gamut of issues, processes and developments, which influenced different periods and aspects of his thoughts, his contributions to African political thought and African social science in particular. The aim is to explain the details, contexts and implications of his theoretical paradigm shifts and other contentious, if controversial issues and aspects of his works. The paper also provides an account of Ake’s contributions to the study of political behaviour, the political economy through leading the various nationalist struggles and by reaffirming the rights of their people to take their own place in history. Through their written, often polemical works, and other practical contributions to Africa’s political transformation, they are appreciated as having contributed to the subject matter of African political thought. More than these heroes, however, Ake, being a scholar-activist was able to capture and speak more pungently to the realities of the African condition. And, given his training as a scholar and revolutionary writer, he was much more theoretically rigorous, methodologically nuanced and therefore successfully systematic in his analysis of the continent. In Ake’s group are Cheikh Anta Diop, Chinua Achebe, Kwasi Wiredu and Oluwole Soyinka, some of who have been studied extensively in History, Philosophy and the Liberal Arts. Accordingly, while intellectual activists are here understood as engaged in instrumentalising knowledge, scholars take on knowledge production as a vocation or profession. Scholars are therefore vocationally confined to an area and are professionally dedicated to knowledge production, almost on a life-time basis. The engagement of intellectual activists with knowledge production is however, not usually on a full-time career basis, but principally as an instrument, or as a means, with which struggle is prosecuted towards a desired form of change. For scholars however, knowledge production is sacredly accepted as an unconditional assignment to which they are committed and dedicated. These illustrations should help us appreciate more clearly, the differences between Ake as a scholar, theorist and activist and other modes of African thinkers who were neither scholars nor theorists, but nevertheless, worked as activists and wrote some polemical-political texts during the anti-colonial, nationalist and pan-African eras in African history. See Africa Information Service (1973). 3 The notion of the radical theory here represents the reaction away from the conventional wisdom enshrined in the bulk of the writings and teachings on African History, Sociology, Economics and Politics both in the West and from the West on Africa. It began mainly in the 1950s and 1960s with its generic name known as radical African scholarship. With this, Africans expressed intellectual reservations and ideological opposition to imperialism. They expressed a concern for the continent’s masses and a preference for socialist economic policies and political strategies. For a detailed treatment of this discursive practice, see Waterman (1977) and Onoge (1977). 5 approach and his involvement in national and international institution-building.4 These are done inter alia, by highlighting his efforts and role in the professional associations as well as research institutions with which he was engaged.5 My study relies on data generated from the following sources. One, extensive-unstructured oral interviews conducted to a selected group of strategic informants who are not only leading scholars in Nigeria and Africa, but also contemporaries, old friends, colleagues and in some cases, past students of Claude Ake.6 Two, on the published commentaries, critiques and tributes written in honour of Ake after his death by his friends, colleagues and institutional bodies. Three, I also used the information provided in Ake’s detailed curriculum vitae and other relevant sources accessed, especially those texts which explain the context of scholarship among progressive opinion at the University of Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania, in the 1970s. These are situated around the general context of scholarship in Africa during these periods, with particular attention paid to the Cold War era, during which radical scholarship and critical Marxist perspectives were quite popular and indeed influenced many scholars. Other developments also accounted for, are the impact of the collegiate spirit and peer 4 By Ake’s theoretical orientations, this study refers to his specific intellectual and theoretical positions, with a particular focus on those developments and experiences, which informed his adoption of such positions and their implications on his person, scholarship and writings. 5 Examples of such professional associations are the Nigerian Political Science Association (NPSA), the African Association of Political Science (AAPS), the International Political Science Association (IPSA), and the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA). Some of the research institutions with which he was involved include the Centre for Advanced Social Science (CASS), the National Universities Commission (NUC), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), the Sage Series on Modernisation and Development in Africa, the Brookings Institution, and the United Nations University-World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER). Other areas of his life examined include his involvement in public service and politics at the national level in Nigeria; his role in the Niger Delta struggle against marginalisation and underdevelopment; and his resignation from the Niger Delta Environmental Survey (NDES). 6 Some of them are Professors Adebayo O. Olukoshi, Archibald B. M. Mafeje, Bernard Magubane, L. Adele Jinadu, Okwudiba Nnoli, Mark Anikpo, Michael Neocosmos, Katabaro Miti, Thandika Mkandawire, Jimi Adesina and Drs. Abdul Karim Bangura, Yakubu Ben-Charles Omelle, Said Adejumobi, Abubakar Momoh, Adefemi V. Isumunoah, Abejide P. Odofin, Kayode A. Omojuwa and Joab S. Peterside. At different periods, these interviews were conducted (i) in August 2002 at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, where the idea of this study was first conceived, and also in January 2003 during the 22nd Annual National Conference of the Nigerian Political Science Association held at the Kongo Conference Hotel, at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; (ii) between August and September 2004, during which this researcher was a Visiting Fellow at the Centre for Advanced Social Science, in Port Harcourt, Nigeria; (iii) in September 2005 during the 15th Biennial Congress of the African Association of Political Science, in Cairo, Egypt; and (iv) in September 2006, during the 2006 Social Science Conference in Johannesburg, South Africa, among others. 6 influences, especially Ake’s interactions with scholars like Walter Rodney, Abdulrahman M. Babu, Dani W. Nabudere, his access to the writings of Frantz Fanon and the great debate at the University of Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania. These are followed by an insight into the social history of Africa. This is done through shedding some light on the historical sociology, not historicism of the continent. In historicising Africa, the study avoids particularistic approaches which limit analyses to one moment or trajectory, but focuses on the entire historical span of the continent and the periods both pre-dating and ante-dating the emergence and development of nation-states in the continent. It theorises the whole of Ake’s life and scholarship as a lived essentialism. As Abubakar Momoh (2002: 25) observes, this is necessary because moments and aspects of Ake’s life may throw up features and developments that could make primary determinants of his consciousness assume the forms of secondary determinants of his scholarship and vice versa. It is therefore, theoretically mistaken and methodologically incorrect to use specific aspects and manifestations of his life to generalise about the character of his scholarship. Rather, the forms and contexts of those manifestations should be critically interrogated, analysed and explained by focusing on the details of his entire trajectory and lifetime sojourn. And, as will be shown shortly, it is important to examine Ake’s biographical and intellectual accounts, and historicise him in relation to the complex social history of Africa for a number of reasons. One, Ake’s intellectual shifts are not properly accounted for, unless we critically interrogate, narrativise and analyse his life, scholarship and career in relation to the material conditions and the complex social history, which facilitated such a transformation. Two, establishing such vital connections helps one to show that, far from being abstract, Ake’s scholarship, experiences and theoretical positions are products of the material world in which he lived and concerning which he wrote. In other words, just like those of other scholars, Ake’s theoretical positions were socially developed and historically constituted. This suggests that the consciousness of 7 men can neither be independently understood nor entirely abstracted from the specific social contexts and experiences within which they were developed. Consciousness therefore includes fundamental elements of criticality, which are indomitable and are also not mechanically determinable. Hence, the concepts of relevance and engagement, which help us in appreciating the concept of socialisation in relation to Ake, and by which reference is made to the material conditions within which his thoughts were conceived and given expression. The paper therefore situates Ake’s works within his specific milieu. Doing this reveals that his writings obviously did not develop in a vacuum. Neither did they arise independent of the complex dialectical realities, which informed his thoughts and concerning which he wrote. In fact, those ideas make sense only when juxtaposed with, rather than separated or isolated from the complex interactions of social forces and the mode of production of his time. Through such an approach, one is able to appreciate Ake’s praxis of knowledge production in Africa and therefore avoid the temptation of vainly glorifying, vilifying or condemning either his paradigm shifts or his contributions to different areas and aspects of the African social science, without properly understanding the context of such contributions, and the specific social history that gives rise and meaning to them. These considerations thus make the examination of Ake’s life and works in the context of the African condition and experience sui generis. In other words, Ake’s ideas on African politics and the summation of his scholarship and experiences are expressions of the struggles of the African people as a collectivised social force. And, to deny the significance of such struggles is to abstract Ake, not only from his historical context, but also to undermine the struggles themselves, which informed his development and career. The paper, therefore approaches the explanation of Ake’s intellectual contribution not as an independent episteme, but locates it through examining the complex interplay of different social classes, productive forces and the entire 8 social structures in Africa as an organic whole. Two positions emerge from this exercise, which underscore the central argument of this paper. One, theories as a peculiar genre of writings in the social sciences are special forms of discourses based largely on imagined categories, objectified realities and established relations, which are grounded in the mindsets and experiences of the theorists themselves and the societies or environments on which they are based. They are also products of the literary imaginations of men and therefore must be critically engaged and scrutinised in terms of their boundaries, which are constrained by the institutional parameters that inform and limit such thinking. Two, the successful revision of theories is contingent upon a sufficient understanding of the thinkers’ mindsets and experiences, which are not only historically constituted in specific contexts, but also shape and condition the subjectivity of the theorists as agents (see Booth, et al., 2003, Burke 2005, Moore and Parker 2006, and Swingewood 2000). Following the introduction, this paper is divided into four sections. The first provides an insight into the development of Ake’s theoretical orientations. It discusses the various biographical factors, intellectual influences and inspirations, which shaped his life, career and scholarship. The second section locates his writings within the tricontinental project of post- colonial studies. Section three discusses his contribution to endogenous knowledge production in Africa. This is done by locating his works within the enterprise of history writing in the continent - an intellectual effort, which challenges the institutionalised paradigmatic domination of the continent by European and other, often supremacist, scholarship and advocates the decolonisation of knowledge in Africa through (i) invoking the ontological and exclusivist connotations of Africanity;7 (ii) carefully articulating the epistemological, methodological and referential bases of Afro-centrism;8 (iii) rewriting and 7 For a detailed treatment of the provocative debate on Africanity and Afro-centrism, see Mafeje (2000). 8 Ibid. 9 reclaiming the humanity of Africans; and (iv) by asserting the African identity and the possibility of an African renaissance. The last section offers the conclusion. Claude Ake: A Biography and Theoretical Orientations Claude Ake’s lifetime, from birth in his native home, Omoku, on 18 February 1939 until his death in an air crash on 7 November 1996, spanned the periods of European colonial domination and political independence in most African states. His native home, Omoku, is located in the present day Ogba-Egbema Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State. He attended the Kings College in Lagos, where he passed the Cambridge School Certificate Examination with distinction and earned a scholarship to study Economics at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, which was then known as the University College at Ibadan, an affiliate institution of the University of London (CASS, 1997: 3). He graduated in 1962 with a First Class Honours Degree in Economics and then proceeded to Columbia University in New York, which awarded him a PhD Degree in Political Science in 1966, with specialisation in Political Economy, Political Theory and Development Studies (see Ake’s Curriculum Vitae, 1996). It should be noted, however, that an array of contrasting claims exists on the various accounts of Ake’s educational background, especially at his First Degree level. This has been treated extensively elsewhere in a larger study.9 Ake’s teaching career began at Columbia University in New York as an Assistant Professor, a position, which he held from 1966 to 1968, after which he relocated to Carleton University in Canada, in 1969. For a long time, and up until the 1970s, two major features characterised his scholarship and career. One, he came under the strong influences and works of liberal Euro-American authorities under whose tutelage his doctoral research was undertaken. Two, most of his writings during this period were also of very liberal ideological leaning. 9 See Arowosegbe (forthcoming). 10