The Project Gutenberg EBook of Deaconesses in Europe, by Jane M. Bancroft This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Deaconesses in Europe and their Lessons for America Author: Jane M. Bancroft Release Date: March 6, 2007 [EBook #20747] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEACONESSES IN EUROPE *** Produced by Barbara Tozier, David Wilson, Bill Tozier and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net DEACONESSES IN EUROPE AND THEIR L ESSONS FOR AMERICA BY JANE M. BANC R O F T, P H.D WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY EDWAR D G. ANDR EWS, D.D., LL.D. Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church “No life Can be pure in its purpose and strong in its strife, And all life not be purer and stronger thereby.” NEW YORK and CINCINNATI 1890 IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION, TO THE EARNEST AND DEVOTED WOMEN WHO, AS MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON DEACONESS WORK OF THE W OMAN’S HOME MI SSI ONARY SOCI ETY, HAVE AIDED IN EXTENDING THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIACONATE OF WOMEN, THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. A U T H O R ’ S N O T E . The Author has aimed to present an accurate and concise statement of the deaconess cause as it exists at the present time. In all cases where it was possible, original sources of information have been consulted. Many friends, both in Europe and America, have given invaluable aid, for which words of thanks are an inadequate recognition. The excellent Index at the close of the volume was kindly prepared by the Rev. J. C. Thomas. Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. Gillett, Librarian of the Union Theological Seminary, and to Mr. C. H. A. Bjerregaard, of the Astor Library, for putting not only the facilities of the library, but their personal assistance, at the service of the writer. Jane M. Bancroft. New York city, June 5, 1889. Page 9 18 34 46 61 79 93 C O N T E N T S . C H A P T E R I . THE DIACONATE. COMPASSION A CHRISTIAN VIRTUE—BROTHERHOOD OF ALL MEN IN CHRIST—FOREIGN MISSIONS —HOME MISSIONS—SERVICE OF MINISTERING COMPASSION GIVES RISE TO THE DIACONATE— Diaconate of women—Its qualities—Field of labor C H A P T E R I I . DEACONESSES IN THE EARLY CHURCH. LITTLE KNOWLEDGE OF EARLY CHURCH—PLINY’S LETTER—APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS— DEACONESSES, WIDOWS, AND VIRGINS—DUTIES OF THE DEACONESS—CHRYSOSTOM, OLYMPIAS— DEACONESSES IN WESTERN CHURCH—DECLINE IN IMPORTANCE—EXTINCTION—INFLUENCES THAT led to decay C H A P T E R I I I . DEACONESSES FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURIES. BÉGUINES—CHARACTERISTICS—DUTIES—GERHARD GROOT—SISTERS OF THE COMMON LIFE— OBLIGATIONS—DUTIES—WALDENSES—BOHEMIAN BRETHREN—LUTHER—CALVIN—REFORMED CHURCH AT WESEL—DEACONESSES IN AMSTERDAM—DAMSELS OF CHARITY—MENNONITES AND Moravians C H A P T E R I V. FLIEDNER, THE RESTORER OF THE OFFICE OF DEACONESS. EFFORTS FOR THE RESTORATION OF THE OFFICE OF DEACONESS MADE BY KLÖNNE—AMALIE SIEVEKING—VON STEIN—COUNT VON DER RECKE—FLIEDNER—HIS CHILDHOOD—YOUTH— STUDENT LIFE—PASTORATE AND TRAVELS—MARRIAGE—FIRST PRISON SOCIETY—FOUNDING OF REFUGE —Need of training schools—Rhenish-Westphalian Deaconess Society C H A P T E R V. THE INSTITUTIONS AT KAISERSWERTH. OPENING OF HOSPITAL TRAINING-SCHOOL—GERTRUDE REICHARDT—THE HOME-LIFE—NORMAL SCHOOL—FLIEDNER’S WIFE—PUBLISHING HOUSE—ORPHAN ASYLUM—INSANE ASYLUM— DISPENSARY—FARM—“SALEM”—HOUSE OF EVENING REST—EXTENSION OF WORK—BERLIN— Foreign lands Jerusalem—Beirut—Smyrna—Bucharest—Florence—Rome C H A P T E R V I . THE REGULATIONS AT KAISERSWERTH AND THE DUTIES AND SERVICES OF THE DEACONESSES. TWO CLASSES OF DEACONESSES—NURSES—TEACHERS—QUALIFICATIONS—PROBATIONERS— DUTIES—SERVICE OF CONSECRATION—CONFERENCES—TABLE OF RESULTS—INSTANCES OF WORK— Duisburg—Schleswig-Holstein war—Austrian war—Franco Prussian war C H A P T E R V I I . OTHER ESTABLISHMENTS ON THE CONTINENT. HOUSE AT STRASBURG—MÜLHAUSEN—MARTHASHOF AT BERLIN—NEUDETTELSAU—ST. LOUP— RIEHEN—ZÜRICH—GALLNEUKIRCHEN—CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTITUTIONS—COUNTRIES WHERE THEY exist 110 142 166 189 204 228 120 C H A P T E R V I I I . DEACONESSES IN GERMAN METHODISM. ORIGIN OF BETHANY SOCIETY—HOUSE AT FRANKFORT—HAMBURG—BERLIN—ST. GALL—ZÜRICH —SISTER MYRTHA—HOUSE OF REST—“GOD’S FIDELITY”—HOUSE REGULATIONS—TRAINING— Results C H A P T E R I X . DEACONESSES IN PARIS. DEACONESS HOME ON RUE DE REUILLY—SITUATION—SCHOOL—HOSPITAL—HOUSE OF CORRECTION—PREPARATORY SCHOOL—INSTRUCTION—PRISON MISSION—MADEMOISELLE DUMAS— EXPENSES OF HOUSE—ITS FOUNDERS—DEACONESS HOUSE ON RUE BRIDAINE—CHARACTER OF work—Duties of the Sisters—Their consecration—Importance of parish deaconesses C H A P T E R X . DEACONESSES IN ENGLAND. EARLY BEGINNINGS—THE PURITANS—CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM—SOUTHEY’S COMPLAINT—MRS. FRY—FLIEDNER—FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE—AGNES JONES—DISTINCTION BETWEEN “SISTER” AND “DEACONESS”—INSTITUTIONS IN CHURCH OF ENGLAND—GARB—CEREMONIES—SELF-DENYING LIVES—DR. LASERON’S INSTITUTIONS AND OTHERS—PRISON MISSION OF MRS. MEREDITH—THE Sisters of the People C H A P T E R X I . MILDMAY INSTITUTIONS. REV. W. PENNEFATHER—SKETCH OF HIS LIFE—BUILDING OF HALL AND DEACONESS HOME AT MILDMAY—CONFERENCE HALL—NURSING HALL—MISSION AND HOSPITAL AT BETHNAL GREEN—THE deaconesses—Their training—Expense—Expenses of institution C H A P T E R X I I . DEACONESSES IN SCOTLAND. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND—ORGANIZATION OF WOMAN’S WORK—REPORT OF COMMITTEES—SCHEME —ADOPTION—WOMEN’S GUILD—WOMEN-WORKERS’ GUILD—DEACONESSES—TRAINING— Syllabus of lectures—Presbyterian Church of England and Ireland C H A P T E R X I I I . THE DEACONESS CAUSE IN AMERICA. GERMAN LUTHERANS—FLIEDNER VISITS AMERICA—PHILADELPHIA—MOTHER-HOUSE OF DEACONESSES—DEACONESSES IN THE EPISCOPAL CHURCH—AMONG THE PRESBYTERIANS—THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH—DEACONESS-HOME IN CHICAGO—ACTION OF GENERAL Conference—Fields of work C H A P T E R X I V. THE MEANS OF TRAINING AND THE FIELD OF WORK FOR DEACONESSES IN AMERICA. ADVANTAGES OF THE HOME AND TRAINING-SCHOOL—FIELD OF WORK—IN HOSPITALS—INSANE ASYLUMS—INFANT-SCHOOLS—TEACHERS—THE HOME-MISSION DEACONESS—HER WORK IN London—Similar work needed in cities of the United States C H A P T E R X V. OBJECTIONS MET AND SUGGESTIONS OFFERED. 247 OBJECTION THAT DEACONESSES RESEMBLE CATHOLIC NUNS—THEIR INFLUENCE—NUMBERS IN DIFFERENT ORDERS—ORDER OF CHARLES—OBJECTION TO GARB—ITS ADVANTAGES—OBJECTION TO THE LIFE ANSWERED—OPINION OF BRYCE CONCERNING AMERICAN WOMEN—WOMEN OF METHODISM— Advice to candidates—Associates—The Church commended by its deeds I N T R O D U C T I O N . How far, and in what form, ought woman’s work in the Church to be organized? What was the deaconess of St. Paul’s epistles? What light on this subject do the primitive and the mediæval Churches yield us? Can “sisterhoods” be established without weakening the sense of personal responsibility in those Christian women who are not thus wholly set apart to charitable and spiritual work? Can they be multiplied without danger of introducing into Protestant communions the evils of the conventual life? Are there modern instances of safe and successful organizations? What good have they achieved, and what further good do they promise? In what relation should such organizations stand to the authority and fostering care of the Church? What should be their scope, spirit, methods? What regulations are fundamental and indispensable? What perils are real and possibly imminent? To answer these, and other questions associated with them, this book is written. Its authoress is a gifted daughter of the Church, well known in literary and educational circles. During a protracted sojourn in Europe she enjoyed unusual facilities for studying the deaconess work as carried on in many places, and particularly in the institutions founded by Pastor Fliedner at Kaiserswerth in Prussia, and in those at Mildmay in England. She has also made a thorough and discriminating study of the subject as developed in the early centuries of the Church and in the Middle Ages. The book itself will amply reveal these facts, and cannot but contribute largely to the guidance of the newly revived interest of the American churches in the far-reaching question how Christian women may best serve their Lord in serving the humanity which he has redeemed. It appears at an opportune time. The General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, at its session in May, 1888, inserted in the law of the Church a chapter on deaconesses, defining their duties and providing for the appointment and oversight of them through the Annual Conferences. This action was the natural outcome of a wide and increasing appreciation of the service of Christian women in many departments of Church work; and it was greatly furthered by the advocacy of Dr. J. M. Thoburn, now the devoted and honored missionary bishop of India and Malaysia. But it had not been the subject of any considerable previous discussion in the periodicals of the Church, and there was not in the Church a widely diffused or an accurate knowledge of the history, scope, possibilities, or perils of such an organization. The promptness, however, with which the provision thus made by the General Conference has been seized upon by the Church in several of our large cities, indicates that the time was ripe for the movement. But information is still scanty; ideas concerning the aim and place of the deaconess work are crude; methods have been very little digested; the foundations of local homes evidently may come to be very imperfectly laid; and the movement may easily come to naught. This book, it is hoped, will do a twofold work. It will awaken a lively interest in a movement already arrived at large proportions in some parts of European Protestantism; and it will guide those among us who are studying how best to organize, against the sin and suffering of the world, the practically unlimited resources of Christian women. Whenever any one shall in some good degree apprehend what helpfulness for the lost as yet lies undeveloped in the hearts and hands of the daughters of the Church, and what honor may yet come to Christianity by the rightly directed use of this power, he will welcome a volume which, like the present one, offers such guidance as history, observation, and earnest reflection yield on the question at issue. Edward G. Andrews. New York, May 10, 1889. DEACONESSES IN EUROPE. CHAPTER I. T H E D I A C O N AT E . In the ruins of the old cities of Greece and Rome we find buildings that were used for public purposes of all kinds—forums, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, and temples of worship. Every provision was made for the entertainment of the people, and for their political and intellectual needs. But nowhere do we find the ruins of structures, belonging either to the public or to private individuals, indicating that any attempt was ever made to care for the feeble-minded, the insane, the deaf, the blind, the sick, or the aged; those that in every nation of modern times are the wards of the State and the definite objects of religious ministrations. The ruins cannot be found because such buildings never existed. No provision was made for those suffering from bodily infirmities, because so far as the State could control circumstances they were not allowed to exist. Children who were defective in any way were put to death. In Sparta this measure was carried out under government supervision. Even Plato in his model republic has all children of wicked men, the misshapen, or the illegitimate put out of existence, that they may not be a burden to the State.1 With the coming of Christ new elements were introduced into the civilization of the world; elements of kindliness, of compassion, of sympathy of man toward his fellow-man, that up to this time had not been known. There was a new revelation of the brotherhood of all men in the fatherhood of God: “We are all one in Christ Jesus.” This spirit of compassion and of sympathy has grown with every century in the Christian era, and at no time has it been stronger in the history of the world than it is to-day. Well has one American historian said: “To a generation which knows but two crimes worthy of death, that against the life of the individual and that against the life of the State; which has expended fabulous sums in the erection of reformatories, asylums, and penitentiaries, houses of correction, houses of refuge, and houses of detention all over the land; which has furnished every State prison with a library, with a hospital, with workshops, and with schools, the brutal scenes on which our ancestors looked with indifference seem scarcely a reality. Yet it is well to recall them, for we cannot but turn from the contemplation of so much misery and so much suffering with a deep sense of thankfulness that our lot has fallen in a pitiful age, when more compassion is felt for a galled horse or a dog run over at a street-crossing than our great-grandfathers felt for a woman beaten for cursing, or a man imprisoned for debt.”2 The spirit of Christ has penetrated even where his rule is not acknowledged, and the humanitarianism of the present day is simply the leaven of Christian love working among the masses of men. In the Christian world the effort to realize the brotherhood of all men in Christ is producing large results. Treasures of money, and infinitely more precious treasures of men, are every year devoted to this one object. The cause of Protestant foreign missions is not yet a century old, but the latest available statistics tell us that the following sums are being contributed annually for this great work:3 32 American societies contribute $3,011,027 28 British " " 5,217,385 27 Continental " " 1,083,170 87 societies contribute $9,311,582 With this large sum American societies are employing 986 men, and 1,081 women; British societies, 1,811 men, and 745 women; Continental societies, 777 men, and 447 women. Total, 3,574 men, 2,273 women. Visible results of faithfulness in work: Members in American societies 242,733 " British " 340,242 " Continental " 117,532 Total membership in foreign lands 700,507 Children in the Sunday-schools 626,741 The subject of home missions is to-day attracting greater attention than ever before. “Die Innere Mission” of Germany, the various forms the work assumes in England, the many societies in the United States occupied by the questions of city evangelization, work among the Mormons, the treatment of the Indians, care for the colored race, and other phases of home work show that Christians are fully understanding that it is wise to build over against our own house. Certainly the reproach cannot justly be made that the Church of Christ is neglectful of the precept, “As we have therefore opportunity, let us do good unto all men.” This is genuine service of man to man, and the motive of the service is love to God. Every revelation of God is of ministering love and compassion, and the efforts of his disciples to imitate the divine love have indelibly stamped upon modern civilization the Christian impress. The service of ministering compassion is so clearly one of the duties of Christ’s Church that of necessity there must be ordinances touching the exercise of this duty. So in Acts vi, 3, we read of the appointment of the deacons, “men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost and of wisdom,” to see that the service of the tables was not neglected. But Christian women have ever had special gifts in caring for the poor and sick and helpless, and the women of apostolic times must necessarily have had their part in these services of love. In addition to the diaconate appointed by the apostles recorded in the sixth chapter of Acts, we must look for a female diaconate as an office in the Church. This we do not fail to find. In Rom. xvi, 1, we read: “I commend unto you Phebe, a deacon of the church which is at Cenchrea.” Such at least would have been the form of the verse if our translators had rendered the Greek word here translated servant as they rendered the like word in the sixth chapter of Acts, the third of the First Epistle to Timothy, and in other passages of the apostolic writings. “That ye receive her in the Lord as becometh saints, and that ye assist her in whatsoever business she hath need of you: for she hath been a succorer of many, and of myself also.” These words of St. Paul are especially valuable as an apostolic witness for the existence of the office of deaconess at the time when he wrote. They are even more than that. They are an apostolic commendation of the office addressed to the Christian Church of all times to accept the deaconess in the Lord, and to assist her “in whatsoever business she hath need of you.” Whether Priscilla, spoken of with Aquila as “my helpers in Christ Jesus,” or Tryphena, Tryphosa, and the beloved Persis, who “labored much,” or Julia and Olympas, all mentioned in the same chapter, were or were not deaconesses we have no means of knowing. Outside of this chapter we do not find other references to the order in the New Testament, unless it be in 1 Tim. iii, 11. In the midst of a lengthy description of the qualifications of deacons is interjected the exhortation: “Even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things.” Now the word wives has no authority from the Greek word, which is simply women. Bishop Lightfoot remarks, in his book on the authorized version of the New Testament, “If the theory of the definite article (in the Greek) had been understood our translators would have seen that the reference is to deaconesses, not to wives of the deacons.” Many eminent scholars are of the same opinion, among whom are Chrysostom, Grotius, Bishop Wordsworth, and Dean Alvord. Dean Howson adds: “It should be particularly noticed in connection with this that in the early part of the chapter no such directions are given concerning the wives of the bishops, though they are certainly as important as the wives of the deacons; so that it can scarcely be thought otherwise than that the apostle’s directions were for the deaconesses, an order which we find in ecclesiastical records for some centuries side by side with that of deacons.”4 Those mentioned in Tit. ii, 3, and in 1 Tim. v, 9, cannot be considered as holding the office of a deaconess. They belong distinctively to the class of widows, who held a position of honor in the Church. St. Paul had clear conceptions of the administrative needs of the Church, and it is not probable that he would set apart to the service of deaconesses, which had many difficult duties, those who were already sixty years old. The many names of faithful women mentioned in his letters as helpers in the Church are important witnesses for the great apostle’s appreciation of woman’s co-operation in the work of the Church, although his judgment was necessarily limited in some directions by the influence of the times in which he lived. Let us examine the requirements for the diaconate of the early Church. The word diaconate means service; helpful service. We use the word to designate service for the Church of Christ; service that more particularly concerns itself with administering the charities of the Church and performing its duties of compassion and mercy. The men who were selected for this office were to be men of “honest report.” They must have led a blameless life. Those who had repented of wrong-doing and reformed their lives were excluded from the office, because they had lost a good report “of them which are without.” Pre- eminently they must be men of spiritual experience, proven Christians, “full of the Holy Ghost and of wisdom.” They were also to have practical gifts that would make them efficient and capable in the duties of every-day life. 1 Tim. iii, 8. These are some of the qualifications spoken of as belonging to the diaconate, and are the same in application to either sex. The woman deacon must, however, besides possessing the above qualities, be unmarried or a widow. The married woman has her calling at home, and cannot combine with that an official calling in the Church, although she may be a valuable lay helper. The field of labor of the women deacons of apostolic times and of the present is essentially the same. The conditions of society and of the Church, however, are totally dissimilar. We must, therefore, look to see new adaptations of the same useful qualities. In other words, we shall not expect to take the female diaconate of the days of the apostles and transport it unchanged, into nineteenth century environments. We shall rather expect to see the invariably useful qualities of the diaconate of women adapted to the needs of the sinful, sorrowing, ignorant, and helpless of the age in which we live. 1 Heidenthum und Judenthum, von Döllinger, p. 692. Regensburg, 1857. 2 MacMaster’s History of the United States, vol. i, p. 102. 3 STATISTICS FROM North American Review, FEBRUARY, 1889, “WHY AM I A Missionary?” 4 Deaconesses, Rev. J. D. Howson, D.D., p. 236. CHAPTER II. D E A C O N E S S E S I N T H E E A R LY C H U R C H . To understand the position of the deaconess with respect to the modern Church we must know something of the relation in which she stood to the early Church. Concisely as may be we must recall the story of the intervening centuries to the present, that we may learn the true position of deaconesses in modern times. We have very little knowledge of the early Church. During the first century and the first half of the second century continued persecution compelled the religious communities of the new faith to live in almost complete seclusion. For the same reason little has been left on record of those years, and it is impossible to form clear conceptions of Church history during the period. The first trace which we find of the existence of deaconesses after the times of the apostles comes to us from an entirely outside source—from the official records of the Roman government. Shortly after the close of the first century the Emperor Trajan sent the younger Pliny as prefect to Bithynia in Asia Minor. At the imperial command he began a persecution of the Christians, but interrupted it for a time to obtain further instructions from the emperor. His letter and the reply still exist. In the course of what he wrote Pliny says that he had sought to learn from two maids, who were called “ministræ” (“ex duabus ancillis, quæ ministræ dicebantur,” Book x, chap. xcvii), or helpers, the truth of what the Christians had said, and had even deemed it necessary to put them to torture, but could obtain evidence of nothing save unbounded superstition. Here is independent testimony of singular interest that deaconesses, followers of Phebe, were found in Christian communities of Asia Minor at the beginning of the second century, and that they kept the faith, when put to cruel martyrdom. The clearest conceptions of the characteristics and duties of deaconesses of the early Church we obtain from the Apostolic Constitutions, a collection of ecclesiastical instructions that gradually grew up in the Eastern Church, and were gathered into one work in the fourth century. These instructions were of unequal antiquity, ranging from the earliest usages to the rules and practices last determined upon. Whether the Apostolic Constitutions have all the authority that some claim for them is a question not here to be decided. If not genuine, they must have been written at a very early time, and from that fact possess a historical value of their own. “They prove beyond a doubt that there was a time in the history of the Church when a clear idea was held by some writer of the office of the female deacon as essential to the discipline of the Church.”1 From them we learn of three distinct types of women connected with the administration of the Church—deaconesses, widows, and virgins. Deaconesses and widows date from apostolic times, the Church virgins from a somewhat later period. The distinction between widows and deaconesses was not at first clearly maintained. By some Church fathers widows were called deaconesses, and deaconesses widows. It was only after the lapse of time that we find the classes clearly distinguished, and when that time is reached the deaconesses have become exalted in office, being regarded as belonging to the clergy,2 while the widows have lost somewhat the honorable position first accorded to them. The deaconesses are active ministering agents, caring for the necessities of others; the widows have passed the period of active service, and having won the respect and protection of the Church are supported in old age from a fund set apart for that purpose. In the Apostolic Constitutions the order of deaconesses stands forth independently, its many official activities are mentioned, and the importance of its service emphasized. By combining the different references we obtain a tolerably clear picture of the deaconess and her duties. She must be a “pure virgin,” or “a widow once married, faithful, and worthy” (Book vi, chap. xvii). Her special duties were as follows: (a.) She was a door-keeper at the women’s entrance to the church. This was an ancient service, dating back to the oldest times.3 Ignatius died a martyr’s death not long after the beginning of the second century, and in a letter which bears his name is written, “I greet the doorkeepers of the holy doors, the deaconesses who are in the Lord.” This guardianship was maintained not only in times of persecution, but as a matter of order and discipline in times of peace. (b.) She showed women their places in the congregation, being especially bound to look after the poor and strangers, giving each due attention. (c.) She instructed the female catechumens. She also visited the women’s apartments, where male deacons could not enter, carried messages to the bishops, and acted as a missionary. Teaching was an important part of the duties of the early deaconesses. (d.) The deaconess had certain duties in connection with the baptism of women that were considered important and indispensable. (e.) In times of persecution she visited those who were oppressed or in prison, and ministered to their bodily and spiritual needs. She seems to have been less endangered in performing these acts than were men. Lucian alludes to the service of these devoted women in prisons. She also cared for the sick and sorrowing, being especially “zealous to serve other women.” (f.) On occasion she was a mediator when there was strife in families, or among friends. Both to deacons and deaconesses “pertain messages, journeys to foreign parts, ministrations, services.” The ever-to-be-remembered journey of Phebe to Rome, when a whole system of theology was committed to her keeping, was quite within the sphere of her duties. It has also been said that to them was given the safe-keeping of the holy books in periods of persecution. The enumeration of these principal duties implying so many lesser details helps us to understand that “deaconesses are needed for many purposes” (Book ii, chapter xv). The deaconess was ordained to her work, as is attested by a great number of authorities.4 “It was because men felt still that the Holy Ghost alone could give power to do any work to God’s glory that they deemed themselves constrained to ask such power of him, in setting a woman to do Church service.”5 The following beautiful prayer of ordination, attributed to the apostle Bartholomew, bears within it certain proofs of the very early existence of the ceremony, as well as of the order of deaconesses: “Eternal God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Creator of man and women, who didst fill Miriam and Deborah and Hannah and Huldah with thy Spirit, and didst not disdain to suffer thine only-begotten Son to be born of a woman; who also in the tabernacle and temple didst appoint woman-keepers of thine holy gates, look down now upon this thine handmaid, who is designated to the office of deaconess, and cleanse her from all filthiness of the flesh and of the spirit, that she may worthily execute the work intrusted to her to thine honor, and to the praise of thine Anointed, to whom, with thee and the Holy Ghost, be honor and adoration forever. Amen.” The allusion to the creation of man and woman, to the women in the Old Testament who were called to special service, as well as to Mary, the mother of the Lord, while no reference is made to the women of the apostolic Church who were so highly commended, and held in veneration as worthy of all imitation, go to prove that the origin of this prayer was so near the time of the apostles as to be almost contemporary with them. The office of the deaconess, as described by the Apostolic Constitutions, fitted into the needs of the Eastern Church and the requirements of Greek life. It was in the East that the diaconate of women originated, and here that it attained its greatest growth. In the West custom did not demand the careful separation of the sexes as in the East, and church relations were less bound by social usages; consequently we meet with fewer references to deaconesses in the works of the Latin fathers, and the diaconate of women is not so deeply rooted in the affections of the church communities as we have found it in the Greek Church.6 The fourth century was the blossoming period of woman’s diaconate, when it attained its highest importance. All the leading Greek fathers and Church authorities of the age make mention of it. The office is spoken of as worthy of all honor, filled by women of rank from noble families, and those of wealth and ability. It found its special advocate and protector in Chrysostom, “John of the Golden Mouth,” who was Bishop of Constantinople from 397 until 407 A.D. He seems to have had the ability, rare for that age, of understanding the value of the services of Christian women, and through his wise guidance and encouragement had over them almost unbounded influence. Forty-six deaconesses were under his direction—forty attached to the mother church at Constantinople, and six belonging to a small church in the suburbs. A number of these were closely identified with his history, either as relatives or friends, and through his writings their memory is preserved. Of these are Nicarete, of a noble family of Nicomedia. We are told she was of a modest, retiring nature, and would not take places of responsibility when urged to do so by Chrysostom. We note a strong tendency toward the later celibate life of the nuns when we read that she was extolled for “her perpetual virginity and holy life.” Sabiniana was the aunt of Chrysostom. To Amprucla the bishop wrote two letters still extant.7 They are filled with words of consolation for the religious persecution she has undergone. In one of them he says: “Greatly did we sympathize with your manliness, your steadfast and adamantine understanding, your freedom of speech and boldness.” “Manliness of soul” seems to have held a high place in the bishop’s favorite qualities. In another place, writing to the same deaconess, he praises “your steadfast soul, true to God; yea, rather, your noble and most manly soul.” Pentadia and Procla were closely associated with Olympias. In a letter to Pentadia, Chrysostom writes: “For I know your great and lofty soul, which can sail as with a fair wind through many tempests, and in the midst of the waves enjoy a white calm.”8 Reading such words of appreciation, words that in other places approach dangerously near to adulation, we better understand the influence Chrysostom exercised over the women of his time, and their steadfast devotion to him. They had the conviction that all their efforts met with his sincere and profound appreciation and quick responsive acknowledgment. Pre-eminent among the friends of the great bishop was Olympias, of whom Dean Howson said, “She is the queenly figure among the deaconesses of the primitive Church.” To understand her life we must recall the scenes by which she was surrounded and the age in which she lived.9 In the great capital of the Eastern Empire, where the luxuriance and magnificence of the Orient combined with the keen, quick intellectual life of the Greeks; in the circle of the imperial court, with its intrigues, its fashions, its favoritisms; at a time when outwardly much respect was paid to the forms of religious life, but when the great and vital dogmas of the Church were made the sport of witty sophistical disputations; when those who endeavored to lead an earnest Christian life met with nearly as much to oppose them as in periods of active persecution; such were her environments. They were little favorable to the strength of mind, the fixedness of purpose, the self-denial and Christian devotion that marked this noble deaconess. Born in 368 A.D. of a heathen family of rank, owing to her parents’ early death she was educated a Christian. In her seventeenth year she married Nebridius, the prefect of the city, but after a married life of twenty months he died, leaving her at eighteen years a widow, rich, beautiful, and free to decide her future. The Emperor Theodosius desired her to marry one of his kinsmen, but she refused, saying, “Had God designed me to lead a married life he would not have taken my husband; I will remain a widow,” and shortly after she was consecrated a deaconess by Bishop Nectarius. The emperor, angered at her refusal, took from her the use of her large fortune, and put it under the care of guardians until she should be thirty years old, whereupon she only thanked him for relieving her of the heavy responsibility of administering her estate, and begged him to add to his kindness by dividing it between the poor and the Church. Shamed out of his anger, the emperor soon restored her rights, and when Chrysostom came to Constantinople her lavish and often unwise generosity was felt in every direction, being compared to “a stream which flows to the end of the world.” He reproved her unbounded liberality, and advised her to administer alms as a wise steward who must render an account. This counsel guided her into safer paths. Finally, when Chrysostom was driven forth to banishment, by his advice she remained in the city, and became a support for his followers and those who had been dependent upon him. She met contemptuous treatment and judicial persecutions, but continued her works of charity, and outlived the man whose mind and heart had so influenced hers by eleven years. Chrysostom wrote her many letters, of which seventeen are extant.10 They plainly show the estimate he set upon the diaconate of women, and his endeavor to wisely cherish it. Unfortunately, they also show exaggeration of compliment and praise which detract from his words of sincere and honest admiration. Too often, also, he gives undue value to works of mercy, and exalts acts of ascetic self-denial. The question of the age at which deaconesses could be received is a vexed one. The confusion of apprehension touching deaconesses and widows led to differing enactments at different times and places. The restriction of age, however, must now have lost its force, as we find Olympias a deaconess when not yet twenty years of age, and Makrina, the sister of Gregory of Nyssa, was ordained when a young girl. Deaconesses retained control of their property. In truth, a law of the State forbade them to enrich churches and institutions at the expense of those having just claims on them. Deaconesses also existed in the Church of Asia Minor. Ignatius mentions them as at Antioch in Syria. They were in Italy and Rome. The Church of St. Pudentiana, in the Eternal City, keeps alive the memory of two deaconesses whose house is said to have stood on this site; Praxedes and Pudentiana, the daughters of a Roman senator, who devoted themselves, with all they had, to the service of the Church. Deaconesses also penetrated to Ireland, Gaul, and Spain, lingering in the last named country many years after they had passed out of knowledge elsewhere. We find very little about this order of Christian workers in the Western Church. There is a passage of Origen in a Latin translation which speaks of the ministry of women as both existing and necessary, but in the great Latin fathers, the contemporaries of Chrysostom, scarcely a mention occurs. From the last half of the fifth century the diaconate of women declined in importance.11 It was deprived of its clerical character by the decrees passed by the Gallic councils of the fifth and sixth centuries. It was finally entirely abolished as a church order by the Synod of Orleans, 593 A.D., which forbade any woman henceforth to receive the benedictio diaconalis, which had been substituted for ordinatio diaconalis by a previous council (Synod of Orange, 441). The withdrawing of church sanctions made the deaconess cause a private one. But as such it existed for hundreds of years, often under the patronage and protection of those high in authority. About the year 600 A.D. the patriarch of Constantinople, godfather of the Emperor Mauritius, built for his sister, who was a deaconess, a church which for centuries was called the “Church of the Deaconesses.” It is still standing and, only slightly changed, is now used for a Turkish mosque.12 In the twelfth century there were still deaconesses at Constantinople. Balsamon, a distinguished professor of Church law, writing at the time, says that deaconesses were still elected in that city and took charge of conferences among women members, but in other places the order had passed completely away. There was no historian of the diaconate of the early Church. We learn of it only from isolated and occasional references in works devoted to other subjects. Yet these references are sufficient to enable us to affirm that deaconesses were a factor in the life of the Church for from nine to twelve centuries, or two thirds of the Christian era. The same influences led to its decay that affected the entire life of the Church during these centuries. The superior sanctity attached to the unmarried state, that brought about the celibacy of the priests, gradually changed the active beneficent existence of the old-time deaconesses into the cloistral life of nuns. Statutes were passed forbidding her to marry. Gradually grew up the dangerous superstition of the marriage of the individual soul with Christ, that made of the nun the Bride of Christ in an especial sense. It was this false conception that led the vow of the nun to be regarded as the vow of marriage, and to be guarded from infringement in the same way as the human marriage tie, and like it to be lasting for life. The glorious doctrine of justification by faith was replaced by ascetic mortifications of the flesh based upon the belief in meritorious works. The cell of the monk and the nun were esteemed more sacred than the family circle, and in the darkness of mediæval times that settled down upon the life of the Church we lose sight of the busy, active ministrations of women deacons, who had once been esteemed so needful to her usefulness. There are other minor causes that aided in the downfall of the order; the abuses that arose in some cases; the changes in the ceremony of baptism by which the aid of women was not so indispensable, and especially the fact that since the time of Constantine the care of the sick and poor was placed under the charge of the State.13 These causes combined removed from the life of the Church a powerful agency for good, and for centuries deprived it of the pre-eminent gifts of ministration which belong to Christian women. 1 Woman’s Work in the Church, J. M. Ludlow, p. 21. 2 Die Weibliche Diakonie in ihrem ganzen Umfang, THEODOR SCHÄFER, 3 vols. Stuttgart: D. Gundert, 1887. Vol. i, p. 45.