7/23/2016 Darwin Skeptics A Select List of Science Academics, Scientists, and Scholars Who are Skeptical of Darwinism Compiled by Jerry Bergman PhD. It is commonly claimed that no scientist rejects macroevolution or Darwinism (by which is meant evolutionary naturalism, or the view that variation caused by mutations plus natural selection accounts for all life forms). For example, Dr. Steve Jones, Professor of Genetics at University College of London, wrote that “no scientist denies the central truth of The Origin, the idea of descent with modification... plants, animals and everything else descended from a common ancestor” (Jones, 2000, pp. xvii, xxiii). Other writers avoid the words “all” or “no scientist” and claim instead that “almost no scientist” rejects Darwinism as defined above. In an article refuting “wiccan creationism,” the author claimed that evolutionary theory has been confirmed to such a high degree and has such great explanatory power that it is the central organizing principle of the biological sciences today. Modern biology is basically unthinkable outside of the context of evolution and that is why it is accepted without reservations by pretty much every working scientists [sic] in the life sciences. It also isn’t really questioned in the other natural sciences, either, like physics or chemistry. The author then makes the following absolutist statement: Evolution is taken as a fact—and while there might be disagreements about some of the details of how evolution proceeds, there are no disagreements about the idea that it does occur and that it is the explanation for the diversity of life on our planet. Ashtaroth’s claim is exactly the opposite of the truth, which is that “almost no scientist puts any stock in any other attempted explanation for the diversity of life—especially creationism” (http://atheism.about.com/b/a/063194.htm accessed May 28, 2004, p. 1). This view is not an isolated example. The late Ernst Mayr, Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology at Harvard University, is “one of the most influential evolutionary theorists of our time” (Ferris, 2001, p. 326). Mayr declared that “no educated person any longer questions the validity of the so-called theory of evolution, which we now know to be a simple fact” (Mayr, 2001, p. 141). He has been claiming this for over 40 years—in 1967 he wrote that “evolution is accepted by every scientist” and for this reason it is no longer necessary to “enumerate painstakingly the proofs for evolution” (Mayr, 1967, p. v). In 1971, Mayr claimed that he did “not know of a single well-informed person who questions the factuality of evolution” (Mayr, 1971, p. 49). Not a single person! Mayr defines evolution, which he calls “Darwinism,” as the rejection of all supernatural phenomena and causations. The theory of evolution by natural selection explains the adaptedness and diversity of the world solely materialistically. It no longer requires God as creator or designer (Mayr 2001, p. 138). Mayr adds that “eliminating God from science made room for strictly scientific explanations of all natural phenomena” (Mayr 2001, p. 138). Furthermore, Mayr concludes, the “truly outstanding achievement” of Darwinism is that his theory “makes unnecessary the invocation of ‘final causes’—that is, any teleological forces” (Mayr 2001, p. 136). This claim is common. Evolutionary biologist of Brandt University Dr Gary Huxley wrote “Evolution is a fact and no educated scientist doubts it” (quoted in McDorman, 2011, p. 1). Yet, in spite of these claims, I was able to with little difficulty assemble a list of almost 3,000 scientists and professors who reject Darwinism as defined as variation caused by mutations plus natural selection ultimately accounts for all life forms, most of whom hold a Ph.D. degree in some field of science. 1 This is but a small percentage of the estimated 113,000 Darwin Skeptic scientists and academics in the United States alone, accordingly to a Harvard researcher (Gross and Simmons, 2006). Yet, Mayr admitted evolution is an historical, not an empirical science: Evolutionary biology, in contrast with physics and chemistry, is a historical science—the evolutionist attempts to explain events and processes that have already taken place. Laws and experiments are inappropriate techniques for the explication of such events and processes. Instead one constructs a historical narrative, consisting of a tentative reconstruction of the particular scenario that led to the events one is trying to explain (2001, p. 135). Given his acknowledgement of this fact, it is all the more surprising that Mayr would be so dogmatic as to insist upon the unquestionable, unequivocal validity of Darwinism. Joseph McInerney, the director of Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, which publishes the textbook Biological Science: An Ecological Approach, wrote that creationists maintain that ‘scientists disagree about evolution.’ That is a deliberate misrepresentation of biology. In fact, all scientists accept the reality of evolution” (quoted in Hill, 1996, pp. 5,7, emphasis added). This erroneous view has been widely promoted and accepted at least since 1922 when Professor George Duncan claimed that Evolution is well-nigh universally accepted by all scientific men as the best explanation for the facts of life. The American Association for the Advance of Science with over 1400 members, comprising most of the scientific men of the United States and Canada, affirmed, in December, 1922, without a dissenting vote, the following: “No scientific generalization is more strongly supported by thoroughly tested evidences than is that of evolution. The evidences for the evolution of man are sufficient to convince every scientist of note in the world.” ...H.F. Osborn of Columbia University writes: “Evolution has long since passed out of the domain of speculation, of hypothesis, and even of theory. It is a law of living nature as firmly and incontrovertibly established as the law of gravitation in respect to the celestial spheres” (Duncan, 1931, pp. 31-32). Others acknowledge that some Darwin Skeptic scientists exist, but conclude that the number is very small. For example, Samuel Kounaves argues evolutionary naturalists include “99.9999 percent of the scientific community” (Kounaves 2005, p. 1). The sources for the members of this list include primarily persons of my acquaintance, from their involvement in creationist or Darwin Doubter organizations, or books that they have written. The list is very incomplete, and I apologize for the many omissions. I estimate that, if I had the time and resources, I could easily complete a list of over 10,000 names. I am also a member of three discussion groups involving over to 400 creationists and Intelligent Design (ID) advocates, many of whom are not included in this list because of their justifiable concern that revealing their sympathies in this area could adversely impact their careers. I did not add names unless the person was out-of-the-closet or gave his or her permission. On my public list, I have close to 3,000 names, including about a dozen Nobel Prize winners but, unfortunately, a large number of persons that could be added to the public list, including many college professors, did not want their name listed because of real concerns over possible retaliation or harm to their careers. Many of those who did not want their names on this list are young academics without tenure, or academics who are concerned that “outing” them could seriously damage their career. This is a valid concern. For this reason I have a private list with well over a 1,000 names. Many on this list are secure tenured professors, teach at Christian Universities that protect their academic freedom to criticize Darwinism, or are in industry, or in a medical field where less antagonism exists when it comes to questioning Darwin. Some on this list are now involved full time in speaking and writing on origins, and no longer depend on secular employment to put bread on the family table. Many are also retired, thus no longer face retaliation for their doubts about Darwin. Some consented to include their names only if their current employment was not listed. This is an ongoing project and I greatly appreciate the contributions of the many persons who have helped me in this now six year long effort. I contacted 2 most of those on this list but, if they have published books or articles that clearly express doubts about Darwinism, or were active in various creation or ID movements, I did not always contact them. Most of the following worldwide scientists and educators (by the time this list was published some may be deceased) all reject “Darwinism” according to the following definition: The belief that evolution and common decent can account for the existence of all life. A few accept common decent but reject the Darwinisn mechanism. Most all persons on this list are also skeptical of the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life. Furthermore, all stressed that careful examination of the evidence for Darwinism should be encouraged. This list proves Mayr’s claim that “no educated person any longer questions the validity” of Darwinism, as Mayr defines it, to be not only false, but grossly irresponsible. Furthermore, many of these scientists and academics have published in the scientific literature, some extensively. In one survey, Elliott (1990) concluded that approximately half of the current Creation Research Society Board members have published research that was cited by other scientists. Thus “it seems reasonable to conclude that most CRS Board members are serious, if not notable, scientists.” References Anonymous. 2006. “A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism.” www.dissentfromdarwin.com, February. ______. 2006. “Over 5000 Scientists Proclaim their Doubts about Darwin’s Theory, Scientific Dissent from Darwinism Continues to Grow, Say Experts.” Available on www.dissentfromdarwin.com. Dennett, Daniel C. 2006. Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon. New York, NY: Viking. Duncan, George. 1931. Prehistoric Man. Boston, MA: Stratford. Elliott, William E. 1990. History and Analysis of the Creation Research Society. MA thesis. Oregon State University March 1, 1990. Ferris, Timothy (editor). 2001. The Best American Science Writing 2001. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Gross, Neil and Solon Simmons, 2006. How Religious are America’s College and University Professors. Working Paper Harvard University. October 5. 10 pp report. Hill, David. 1996. “Counter Evolutionary.” Education Week, Nov. 20, pp. 1-12. Kounaves, Samuel. 2005. “Kounaves: Evolution is Much More Than Just a Scientific ‘Hunch.’” The Winchester Star, March 17. Mayer, William V. 1971. “Letters to the Editor: Evolution vs. Special Creation.” The American Biology Teacher, January, pp. 50-51. Mayr, Ernst. Foreword to Process and Pattern in Evolution by Terrell H. Hamilton. New York MacMillan. ______. 1971. “Letters to the Editor: Evolution vs. Special Creation.” The American Biology Teacher, January, pp. 49-50. ______. 2001. “Darwin’s Influence on Modern Thought” (pp. 134-142) in Ferris. McDorman, Paul. 2011. “Noted Evolutionist says He Won’t Debate Creationists.” World by Design. 19(3):1. Darwin Skeptics 3 Note: for each person I have tried to include current profession, degrees, what in, where from, and select major accomplishments. Earl M. J. Aagaard PhD. Professor of Biology at Southern Adventist University. His BA and MA are both in biology from Pacific Union College and his PhD is in Fish and Wildlife Biology from Colorado State University. Gerald E. Aardsma Ph.D. a research scientist, earned a BS and MS in Physics, and a Ph.D. in Nuclear Physics from the University of Toronto for his research in accelerator mass spectrometry. Benjamin L. Aaron M.D. is Professor Emeritus of Surgery of George Washington University and Chief of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C. He received his premed degree (Phi Beta Kappa) from the University of Missouri his M.D. from the University of Texas, and his internship at the Naval Hopital. He has held post-doctoral fellowships at the Medical College of Virginia and the University of Alabama. He is most well known for heading the surgical team that saved the life of President Ronald Reagan and the bypass operation on Vice President Dick Cheney. Donald Abb M.S. Assistant Professor of Biology at The Kings College in New York. He has a BS from Delaware Valley College in Doylestonwn, PA in Biology and a MS from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, IL in Ecology and Ornithology (Zoology). Charles Abei Ph.D. is Professor Emeritus at Ohio Valley University in Vienna, West Virginia, where he served as a professor from 1964 to 1998. John Leo Abernethy PhD Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at Fresno State University and former Associate of the Journal of Chemical Education. His M.S. and PhD are from Northwestern University, both in chemistry. Nathaniel Abraham Ph.D. is now Associate Professor of Biology at Liberty University. He has a B.V.S from Tamilnadu Veterinary University, and a M.S. and Ph.D., both in biology, from St. John’s University. S. Thomas Abraham PhD Assistant Professor Pharmacology and Toxicology Campbell University School of Pharmacy. He has a BS in Chemistry from Mars Hill College, and a Ph.D. in Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacology from East Tennessee State University. He is also on the staff of Baptist Hospital, South Florida. Gary L. Achtemeier Ph.D. Professor and research scientist University of Illinois and a USDA Forest Service scientist and Director of the Southern High-Resolution Modeling Consortium. BS, MS and Ph.D. in Meteorology from Florida State University. Paul D. Ackerman Ph.D. is Assistant Chairperson since 1990, and Assistant Professor of Psychology since 1968, in the Psychology Department at Wichita State University. Dr. Ackerman received his BA, his MA, and his Ph.D. in Social Psychology, all from the University of Kansas. Donald O. Acrey Sr. B.S. received a BS in Geology from Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas and was a geophysicist for the petroleum industry until his recent retirement. Rush K. Acton M.D., an orthopedic surgeon, is Associate Professor of Orthopedic Surgery and Associate Professor of Anatomy at the University of Miami. He is an ICR author. His M.D. is from ? Richard Acworth Ph.D. received an MA in Philosophy from the Sorbonne and a Ph.D. from Oxford. He is the author of Creation, Evolution & the Christian Faith (1969). 4 Joel Adams Ph.D. Professor of Computer Science at Calvin College. His BS (cum laude) in psychology with minors in math and computer science was from Geneva College, his MS and Ph.D. in computer science are both from the University of Pittsburgh. Rutherford Adkins Ph.D. President and Professor of physics Fisk University, Nashville, TN. He has a BS from Virginia State University a MS from Howard University and a Ph.D. from Catholic University of America. Mortimer Adler Ph.D. was a professor at the University of Chicago and editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica and author of 45 books. His Ph.D. was from Columbia University. Neal Adrian Ph.D. is Principal Scientist Investigator, Environmental Science: US Army Research & Development Center. He has a Ph.D. in Microbiology from the University of Oklahoma. Paul Clarence Aebersold PhD a biophysicist for Oak Ridge and other major research laboratories. He graduated cum laude from Stanford University and has a MA and PhD from the University of California. Domingo Aerden PhD Professor of geology, Universidad de Granada in Spain. Theodore E. Agard Ph.D. is a Director of Medical Physics at Flower Hospital Oncology Center, Ohio and at Medical College of Ohio. He holds a BS (first class Honors) in Physics, a MS in Physics both from the University of London, and a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Toronto. Peter A. Pagan Aguiar Ph.D. is Professor of Philosophy at Aquinas College, Nashville, TN. His BA is from Berkeley, his MA and PhD are both from Fordham University, all in philosophy. Rafi Ahmed Ph.D. Professor of Microbiology and Immunology in the Emory University School of Medicine and Director, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University. He has a a M.S. from Idaho State University and a PhD from Harvard University. He has over 160 scientific publications in the peer reviewed literature. Stephen J. Ahn B.A., B.S. received a BS in Meteorology from San Jose State University in San Jose, California and has completed graduate work at UCLA and USDA. He has worked for the National Weather Service for almost 11 years as a Meteorologist and recently accepted a job for the U.S. Navy in Japan. David Aikman Ph.D. Associate Professor of History at Patrick Henry College. A world-renowned journalist, was a Time Magazine journalist for most of his career. Born in Surrey, England, he attended Stowe School in Bucks, England on a scholarship. He later came to the United States, became a U.S. citizen, and earned a MA in Central Asian languages, and a Ph.D. in Russian and Chinese History both from the University of Washington in Seattle. James Aist Ph.D. Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. His B.S. and M.S. are from the University of Arkansas and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. He has published widely in the peer reviewed literature. Mustafa Akoyl MS is Media Director of International Relations at the Intercultural Dialogue Platform (a foundation in Istanbul), freelance writer, and spokesman for Islamic organizations interested in origins science. Russell G. Akridge Ph.D. earned a BS from the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia, a MS, and a Ph.D. all in Physics from the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia. Akridge is now an Associate Professor of Physics in the Department of Biological and Physical Sciences at Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia. 5 Nicholas M. Aksionczyk M.S. author and adjunct faculty at Chapman University in history. He earned his MS from California State University at Sacramento. Ann-Sofie Albrekt Ph.D. is a Creation Speaker from Sweden, a bioinformatics specialist and researcher at Microarray Resource Center in Lund, Sweden. Mauricio Alcocer Ph.D. is Director of Graduate Studies at Autonomous University of Guadalajara in Mexico. His Ph.D. is in Plant Science from the University of Idaho. James Allan PhD is senior lecturer in genetics at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. He has a Ph.D. in genetics from the University of Edinburgh and has done research on the genetics of frult flies. He is also an international consultant in dairy cattle breeding. Davis Allen PhD Professor emeritus at ?? He has a PhD in biological science from the University of Georgia. Thomas Allen PhD Dean, College of Science & Mathematics Department of Biology North Greenville University, South Carolina. He has a Ph.D. in Physiology from University of Cincinnati and a M.S., in zoology from University of Wyoming. Gail H. Allwine PhD Professor emeritus of Electrical Engineering at Gonzaga University. He has a B.S., M.S. and PhD., all in engineering from the University of Washington. Roy Alden Atwood PhD President New Saint Andrews College, Moscow, ID. He has a BA in philosophy from Dordt College, a MA in religion form Westminster and a PhD in Mass Communications from the University of Iowa. Moorad Alexanian Ph.D. is a Professor of Physics at the University of North Carolina, Wilmington. His BS is from the University of Rhode Island, his MS and Ph.D. are from Indiana University, all in Physics. Braxton M. Alfred Ph.D. is Emeritus Professor of Biological Anthropology at the University of British Columbia. He has published widely in the peer reviewed literature. His post doc was done at Stanford University. Charles Aling Ph.D. is Professor of History at Northwestern College. His Ph.D. in Ancient History/Egyptology is from the University of Minnesota. James S. Allan Ph.D. holds a B.S. in Agriculture from the University of Natal, a MS in Agriculture from Stellenbosch, and a Ph.D. in genetics from Edinburgh University, Scotland. He recently retired as Senior Lecturer in the Department of genetics at the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, and now lectures at universities, and also serves as an international consultant in cattle breeding. Frank Allen PhD. Professor emeritus of biophysics at the University of Manitoba, Canada. His MA and PhD are from Cornell in biophysics. He has published widely in the area of color vision. David Allen B.App.Sc. has a BS in Applied Geology from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, and works as an exploration geophysicist. Wesley D. Allen Ph.D. is Professor of Computational Quantum Chemistry and senior research scientist at the University of Georgia previously Assistant Professor of Chemistry, Stanford University. His BA is in chemistry and physics from Vanderbilt and his Ph.D. is in Theoretical Chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. He did his post doc at Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, CA. Roland C. Aloia Ph.D. is Professor of Biochemistry and Anesthesiology at Loma Linda University. His Ph.D. is in Biochemistry from the University of California, Riverside. 6 Carlos A. Alvarez Ph.D. currently teaches at Pensacola Christian College, Pensacola, Florida. He has a Ph.D. in Biochemistry/Molecular Biology. His Ph.D. is from the University of Georgia in Biochemistry. Jesus Ambriz M.D. is Professor of Medicine at Autonomous University of Guadalajara in Mexico. Dunston Philoman Ambrose Ph.D. Professor of Zoology at St. Joseph’s College, Trichy, India. He has a BS from Scott Christian College, Nagercoil, India; a MS from American College, Madurai, India; a Ph.D., from University Madras, Coimbatore, India; and a DSc from Madurai Kamaraj University, India. Edmund J. Ambrose D.Sc. is Professor Emeritus at the University of London and department head of Cell Biology at the Chester Beatty Research Institute University of London. He has a BA from Cambridge and a D.Sc. from London University in cell biology. He is the author of many books, including the text Cell Biology, and The Nature and Origin of the Biological World (Halsted), which advocates Intelligent Design. Arie van Nieuw Amerongen Ph.D. is professor and chairman of the dental school, faculty of medicine at the Vrije University in Amsterdam, Holland. His MS and Ph.D. are both in Biochemistry from Vrije University, Amsterdam. He is the author of 170 research papers and three textbooks. Changhyuk An Ph.D. Physicist at Applied Research Inc., Huntsville, AL. His Theoretical studies were in MHD and radiative stability of solar plasmas. He has a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Tennessee. Ralph E. Ancil Ph.D. has a degree in Mathematics, and also studied Genetics and Biology. His Ph.D. is in Resource Economics, and he is on the Board of Advisors of the Agrarian Foundation. Until retirement, he was a Professor at Franciscan University in Steubenville, Ohio. Albert S. Anderson M.D. practices medicine at Taylor, South Carolina, specializing in allergies. He was formerly chair of the science department at Shelton College in New Jersey where he taught Biology, Zoology, Embryology, and Physiology, and has served on the medical staff at Bob Jones University. His BS is from Johns Hopkins University, his MD from New York Medical College, and he did his residency at the University of Michigan. Barton P. Anderson M.S. a research scientist, has a BS in Physics from Wheaton College and a MS in Aeronautical Engineering from the Naval Post-Graduate School in Monterey, California. Edward J. Anderson Ph.D. Professor of Operations Management, Australian Graduate School of Management, University of New South Wales, Australia. His MA is in mathematics from Univ. of Cambridge; His Ph.D. is in Control and Management from Cambridge University. He has published 52 articles and 2 books in his field. J. Kerby Anderson Ph.D. received his BS in Zoology from Oregon State University, his M.F.S. in Ecology and Evolution from Yale University, a MA from Georgetown University and a Ph.D. from Loyola University. James W. Anderson PhD Former Academic Dean of Holy Apostles College and Seminary. He has a JD and MS and a PhD Kevin L. Anderson Ph.D. Professor of Microbiology at Mississippi State University, and research scientist for the U.S. government. He received a BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Food Science and Microbiology from Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas. He did his Postdoctoral study at the University of Illinois from 1987 to 1991 and has published over 20 research papers. Norman Dean Anderson Ph.D. Professor of Science Education North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. He has a BA and MA, University of Iowa, and a Ph.D. Ohio State University. He has authored many books and scientific articles. 7 Paul M. Anderson Ph.D. Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. He served on the editorial board of Journal of Biological Chemistry and has published more than 85 peer review papers. Richard Anderson Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Environmental Science and Policy at Duke University. He has a Ph.D. in Geography and Environmental Engineering, a M.S.E. in Mechanical Engineering, and B.S.E. in Engineering Mathematics, all from The Johns Hopkins University. Robert C. Anderson PhD Assistant Dean for Faculty Development and Professor of Biology, Wisconsin Lutheran College B.S., Ph.D., Michigan State University, all in biology. Ronald D. Anderson PhD. Professor of Science Education, School of Education, University of Colorado at Boulder, former Assistant Professor, Kansas State University at Manhattan, KS. He has a BS in Physics and a Ph.D. in Science Education, both from the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Anderson has served as president of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, president of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science, and chair of the Education Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was awarded a Fulbright Senior Research Award to conduct research in Germany. Ross S. Anderson Ph.D. is Professor of Biological Sciences at the Master’s College, in Santa Clarita, California. He received his BA from Austin College, a M.B.S. from the University of Colorado, and a Ph.D. in Biochemistry from Baylor College of Medicine. V. Elving Anderson PhD Professor of Human Genetics Emertus and Assistant Director of the Dight Institute for Human Genetics at the University of Minnesota. His BS is from Bethel College in St Paul, MNand his PhD is from the University of Minnesota. Niels-Erik Andreasen Ph.D. is President of Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan. He has a BA in history from Newbold College in England, a MA in Biblical Studies, and a Ph.D. from Vanderbilt in Religious Studies. Gabriela Andrei M.S. is at the Institute of Geodynamics, the Roman Academy, in Bucharest, Rumania. His MS is in Physics. Edgar Harold Andrews Ph.D. is Professor emeritus of Materials and Head, Department of Materials Science at Queen Mary and Westfield College (University of London). He has a BS with Honors in Theoretical Physics and a Ph.D. and D.Sc. in Physics, both from the University of London. He received a FIM, CEng and also a CPhys. and was awarded the A.A. Griffith Medal. He has authored John Ankerberg D.Min president of the Ankerberg Theological Research Institute, has a BA from the University of Illinois, a MM in the history of Christian Thought, and a M.Div. with academic honors, and a M.S. and D.Min. from Luther Rice Seminary, Atlanta, Georgia. He is the author or co-author of 65 books. Aila Annala (theol. Kand.) studied at Newbold College in England and at the Universities of Uppsala and Lund in Sweden with additional studies in Semitic Languages from Lund. Timothy Anstine Ph.D. is Professor of Chemistry at Northwest Nazarene University in Nampa, Idaho. His BS is from the University of Berkeley, his Ph.D. is in Organic Chemistry from the University of Nevada. Frank Andrew Anthony PhD. Senior biologist, Schering-Plough Health Care Products, Memphis, Research fellow, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis; Adjunct faculty Memphis State University. He has a BS and Ph.D. from Texas Christian University, both in biochemistry and has contributed many articles to professional journals. 8 Marc Apkarian Ph.D. is Professor of Kinesiology at Biola University. He has a B.S., University of California, Los Angeles, a M.S. from San Diego State University and a Ph.D. in Exercise Physiology from the University of New Mexico. Gleason L. Archer Ph.D. was Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Studies at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. Michael J. Arct Ph.D. received his Ph.D. in Dendrochronology from Loma Linda University in 1991, and is currently with the Department of Natural Science at Loma Linda University in Loma Linda, California. Janice Arion Ph.D. Professor of Animal Science at Cornell University. William Joseph Arion PhD Emeritus professor of Nutritional Sciences/Molecular Biology and Genetics Cornell University. He has a PhD from University of North Dakota Medical School. Chad Arment B.S. has a BS from Wright State University, and is a herpetologist with an interest in wildlife and natural history. Mark H. Armitage M.S. studied Biology and Plant Pathology at the University of Florida, has been a microscopist since 1977. Currently, Electron Microscope Laboratory Supervisor, California State University Northridge, CA, former Adjunct Professor of Biology and Electron Microscopy at the Master’s College and Azusa Pacific University. He is now a Ph.D. canadate at Liberty University. He has published widely in the professional literature. Harold Armstrong M.S. is Professor of Physics at Queen’s University in Ontario, Canada. His MS is in physics from Queen’s University in Ontario. Neil Armitage Ph.D is Associate Professor of Civil Engineering University of Cape Town South Africa. He has a B.Sc. in engineering from the University of Natal (Durban), a M.Sc. in engineering from the University of Cape Town, and a Ph.D. in engineering from the University of Stellenbosch. He has over 20 professional publications. Alexander Arndt Ph.D. is the former Vice-President of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Medical Sciences, Institute for Ecology Research, and is now Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Heidelberg University, Germany. Russell T. Arndts Ph.D. is Professor of Chemistry at St. Cloud State University, Minnesota. He graduated with a Ph.D. in inorganic Chemistry from Louisiana State University and a MS in organic chemistry from Indiana University and a BS in chemistry. Philip J. Arnholt Ph.D. Professor at Concordia University, Mequon, WI, Department of Biology. He has a BS, and a MS in biology from Eastern Illinois University and a Ph.D. in biology from the University of Nebraska. Eduardo Arroyo Ph.D. is Professor of Forensics at Complutense University in Madrid, Spain. His Ph.D. is in Biology. Russell Charles Artist Ph.D. now Professor Emeritus, was Head of the Biology Department at David Lipscomb University in Tennessee where he taught for 23 years. He received his BS from Butler University, a MS in paleoecology from Northwestern University and a Ph.D. and in botany from the University of Minnesota, and has pursued extensive graduate studies at the University of Zurich, Switzerland and, for five years, was a Professor at Frankfurt on Main College, Germany. He is now at Amarillo College, Amarillo, Texas. 9 William James Ash PhD. Professor emeritus genetics, SUNY, Stony Brook, formerly geneticist at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., He has a BS, MS, and Ph.D. from Cornell University, all in genetics. Eugene C. Ashby Ph.D. Regents’ Professor of Chemistry and biochemistry and Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Georgia Institute of Technology, BS Loyola University, MS Auburn University, and Ph.D. University of Notre Dame, all in chemistry. He has over 280 papers in major chemistry journals and has been a Sloan Fellow and a Guggenheim Fellow. Paul Ashby PhD. a post-doc fellow at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. His PhD in Chemistry and Chemical Biology is from Harvard University, and his post-doc also was done at Harvard. Christopher Wayne Ashcraft M.S. received his BS in Biology from Wayland Baptist University, and his MS in Plant Molecular Biology from Texas Tech University and 140 graduate level credits for his Ph.D. at Oklahoma State University. He is currently a plant transformation specialist with EDEN Bioscience in Bethel, Washington, near Seattle. John F. Ashton Ph.D received a BS with honors and a CRS Chemical prize in Chemistry from the University of Newcastle, a MS in Chemistry from the University of Tasmania and a Ph.D. in Epistemology with an Institute of Educational Research Prize from the University of Newcastle. Ashton is currently Director of Research for the Sanitarium Health Food Company. Alexander G. Asmolov Ph.D. Professor at Moscow State University from 1988 until 1998, then was the Deputy Minister of Education in Russia. His Ph.D. is in psychology. Michael Atchison Ph.D. is a Professor of Biochemistry and Director of the VMD-Ph.D. combined degree program at the University of Pennsylvania's Veterinary College. His BS in biology is from SUNY in Albany, and his Ph.D. from New York University School of Medicine is in cellular and molecular biology. Gordon Atkins PhD. is Professor of Biology at Andrews University. His BS, and MS are both in biology from Andrews University and his PhD is in Biology from McGill University. Joseph Atkinson Ph.D. is a Scientist, and Director of the Great Lakes Program at the University of Buffalo. His Ph.D. is in Organic Chemistry from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Gregory A. Ator M.D. is Associate Professor and Director Division of Otology/Neurology Department of Otolaryngology at the University of Kansas Medical Center. His MD is from Baylor College of Medicine. He has 14 publications in scientific journals. Peter Atwood PhD is Professor of Mathematics at Cornerstone University . His BS is from Trinity University, his MA from Princeton and his PhD from Western Michigan University, all in mathematics. Robert Augros has a Ph.D. in philosophy from Laval University, Quebec and is a Professor of Philosophy at St. Anselm College. Theodore P. Aufdemberge Ph.D. is a Professor of geography and earth science at Concordia University, Ann Arbor, MI. He received his BS from Concordia Teachers College, Seward, Nebraska and his MA from Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan and his PhD in physical geography from the University of Michigan. He did post-graduate work at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota; Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan; Oregon State University, Corvalis, Oregon; Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan; Capital University, Columbus, Ohio; Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania; and University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio. Wayne U. Ault Ph.D. A geologist with the U. S. Department of the Interior. He has a BA from Wheaton College, and an MS and PhD from Columbia University, all in geology. 10