The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cyprus, by Franz von Löher This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: Cyprus Historical and Descriptive Author: Franz von Löher Translator: Mary Anne Joyner Release Date: October 5, 2014 [EBook #47056] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CYPRUS *** Produced by Turgut Dincer and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) CYPRUS, HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. London: Wm. H. Allen & Co. Stanford’s Geog.l Estab.t London MAP OF CYPRUS 1878. CYPRUS, HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. ADAPTED FROM THE GERMAN OF FRANZ VON LÖHER. WITH MUCH ADDITIONAL MATTER BY MRS. A. BATSON JOYNER. AND TWO MAPS. LONDON: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE. Publishers to the India Office. 1878. v INTRODUCTION. The sudden interest created by recent political events in everything relating to Cyprus, an island which, from its geographical position, seems destined to play no unimportant part in modern history, has rendered the appearance of Herr von Löher’s narrative of his recent journeyings through the length and breadth of that country extremely welcome. It is therefore with much pleasure we have received permission from the Author to lay before the British Public an adaptation of his book (only published during the last few days) which seems well suited to supply information, such as is at present much needed in England. The island of Cyprus from the first dawn of civilisation has been classic ground, extremely interesting to antiquaries, and its history throughout the Middle Ages is largely blended with tales of chivalry and romantic incidents, such as in these matter-of-fact times are scarcely cared for by speculators, whose object is to obtain reliable information on subjects of more practical importance, such as the resources of the country, the character of its soil, the capabilities of its surface, and the industry of its inhabitants. Lessons upon these points are only to be learned from a careful survey, such as that accomplished by our author, who, uninfluenced by prejudice, describes in simple narrative the actual condition of the island, the scenery of the interior, and the everyday employments and pursuits of the people, thus removing many erroneous impressions as to the condition of the Cypriotes, and leaving the reader to form his own opinion as to the status and prospects of our new acquisition. All information connected with these points we have carefully rendered, only omitting such matter as appeared irrelevant, and calculated unnecessarily to increase the size of the book. Additional information gleaned from various sources, relative to the general history and statistics of the island, is to be found in the Appendix. That the climate of Cyprus is delightful, the soil prolific, and the landscape in some parts of the country of surpassing beauty, we have abundant testimony in the writings of classic authors, and there is no reason to suppose that in these respects its attractions have deteriorated. A late writer, J. Jasinides, who died at a good old age at Koutzovendi, in Cyprus, in 1871, at the conclusion of his work “Les Iles Mediterranée,” thus expresses himself: “For forty years I have been wandering from isle to isle, ascertaining their political, commercial, and social aspect, and this island (Cyprus) notwithstanding the barbarism of its present rulers, through which it is cut off from the rest of the world, is my favourite.... It is a little world in itself; here do I wish to die. My limited means will keep me in comparative luxury. Although old, I am strong and feel young, no wild beasts or reptiles disturb my solitude, the water is sweet and cool, the wine is nectar, and the food plain but good; above all I know that my grave will be respected, and that kind hands will close my eyes.” M. A. J. London, 1878. vi vii viii ix CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. LARNAKA. PAGE First View of Larnaka—Arrival—The Haven—The Town—Catholic Church—Fine Carving—Kissing Relics—Marble Sarcophagi—Tombs—Derivation of Name of Larnaka—Phœnicians—Kiti—Language—Shallow Harbour—An ancient Graveyard—Relics—Nursing Bottles—Schools—Church of St. Lazarus—A Compromise in Ecclesiastic Architecture—St. Lazarus’s Morning Walk—Ride out to curious Building—Strange Doors—Phaneromene Panagia— Female Superstitions—Salt Lake—Marshes Source of Ill-health 1 CHAPTER II. ATHIENU. Streets of Larnaka—Game Birds—Mountain of Olympus—Negro Slaves—Natives of Athienu—Attack on Famagusta —Repulse of the Turks—Six Months’ Siege—Honourable Terms—Meeting of rival Generals—Treachery of Mustapha—Butchery of the Garrison—Bragadino flayed alive—Triumphant Return of Mustapha—Dinner with an Athenitan—Dali—Two largest Rivers—Neglected Land—Character of a Cypriote—Silkworms—Planting of Mulberry Trees—Silk Factories—Forests—Carob-tree—Cyprus a miniature India—Fruits—Sugar—Cotton—The Garden of the World—A Guard of Honour—First View of the Capital—Lepers—Visit to the Governor 9 CHAPTER III. NIKOSIA. Morning Impressions—Easter Eve—Gardens of Fruit Trees—Society—Costume of the Ladies—Beauties of Cyprus— Adoption of Turkish Customs—Language—Cathedral of St. Sophia—Church of St. Nicholas—Archbishop’s Chapel —Visit to the Lord Archbishop—A Rising Man—Greek Priests—Church of St. Katherine—Memorials of the Dead— St. Paul in Cyprus—Elymas, the Sorcerer—Prisons—Court of Justice—Wanton Destruction—Wealthy Nobles— Enormous Establishments—Great Riches of Merchants 21 CHAPTER IV. CYPRUS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. A German Kingdom—Richard Cœur de Lion—Cyprus sold to Lusignan—Knights Templars—Amalrick—Becomes a Vassal to Henry the Sixth of Germany—From a.d. 1285 to a.d. 1373—Conquest of Smyrna and Alexandria— Commerce—Wealth and Luxury—Death of James the Second—Origin of Italian Title of Kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem—Turks—Erection of Fortifications—Selim the Second—Attack on Limasol—Arsenal at Venice burnt— Nikosia besieged—Heroic Defence—Spoil and Captives—Result of Intemperance 33 CHAPTER V. DRAWING UP OF THE STATUTES. Social Positions of the various Classes—Vassalage—Form of Government—Marriage of Lady Vassals—Law Courts— Assizes of Jerusalem—Custody of the Book of the Law—John d’Ibelin—Knightly Law-Makers—Philip of Navarre —Grand Statute Book of Cyprus 42 CHAPTER VI. SAN CHRISOSTOMO. Cyprus, European or Asian?—Buffavento—Excursion to inspect Buffavento—Carrying Fire-arms prohibited—A quiet Morning Ride—An old Turk and his Wives—The Northern Range of Mountains—St. Chrisostomo—Monastic Economy—Maria of Molino—Precautions against Fever—Easter Decorations—A Remedy for Leprosy—Fortresses erected to command Passes and Roads—Spirit haunted—Unger and Kotschy 47 CHAPTER VII BUFFAVENTO. Bee-hives—The Queen’s Castle—Paradise—Take a Guide—Gradual Ruin—En Avant—The Guides suspect Treasure Hunting—The Fortress—Zaptiehs and their Masters—Plucky Guide—The Highest Tower—View from the Summit —A German Female Recluse—Peculiar People in Carpasia—The Descent—Fortresses destroyed by Venetians—Sale of Crown Lands—Decline of Old Nobility 54 CHAPTER VIII TURKISH GOVERNORS. x xi Visit from the Pacha—One Hundred Years Ago—How Governors feathered their Nests—Poll-tax—Expostulation— Report to the Sultan—Arrival of the Imperial Envoy—Public Reading of the Sultan’s Commands—Fall of the Floor of the State Chamber—Explanation of the Trap—The Governor will not be governed—Attacked by the Populace— Death of the Governor—A New Governor—Intrigues and another Poll-tax—Popular Refusal—Preparations for Rebellion—The Water cut off—The Edict withdrawn—Again a Poll-tax—The Nobles head the Insurrection— Blockade of Nikosia—Again the Tax withdrawn—Arrival of a New Governor—Disappointed Hopes—Proposals— Order again restored—The Poll-tax again demanded—General Revolt—Attack on Famagusta—Siege of Nikosia— Eastern Wiles—Mediation by English Consul—Fighting continued—Arrival of Corsairs—A strong Argument— Arrival of Special Envoy to compel Order—Deserters from the Rebel Camp—Rebels retire to Keryneia—The Castle besieged—An Open-hearted Turkish Sailor!—Betrayal of Halil Aga—Capitulation—Smiles—Treacherous Execution —Two Hundred salted Heads—Order restored 62 CHAPTER IX. THE PLAINS OF CYPRUS. Expedition to ascend Olympus—No Information to be obtained—Neglected Districts—Game—Prompt Action of my Zaptieh—Faithful obedience of Mussulman Servants—Akazi—Easter—Fasting extraordinary—Abstinence of the Greeks—Heat 77 CHAPTER X. EVRYCHU. Cool Waters—Evrychu—In Church—Healthy Population—Graceful and interesting Customs—Greek Houses—Our Host and his Family—An Easter Dinner—Classic Christian Names—Absence of large Trees—Cypriote Clergy 83 CHAPTER XI. MOUNT OLYMPUS. A Mountain Pass—Lost our Way—Heroism of the Dragoman!—Sight of a Glacier—Absence of Large Timber at Base of Mountain—Dragoman again! who fairly bolts—Horses and Zaptieh left behind—Heavy Work in the Snow— Scene from the Summit—Alone!—No Trace of Ruins 90 CHAPTER XII. CYPRUS IN ANCIENT TIMES. Descent of Olympus—A Retrospect—The busy Phœnicians—Shipbuilders for the Euphrates—The Goddess Astarte— The New Religion—Trojan War, the first Struggle between East and West—Grecian Warrior Colonists—Evidence of Ancient Inscriptions—The Nine Kingdoms of Cyprus—Attacks by Continental Nations—Cyprus appealed to for Assistance—The Cyprian Navy—Philip of Macedon—Alexander the Great—Cyprian Shipwrights on the Indus— Artisans of Cyprus—Ptolemies—An Egyptian Ruler—Cyprus a Roman Province—Under Roman Dominion— Aphroditissa—The Idol Stone—Little Images of the Madonna—Revolution of the Jews—Great Slaughter—A Land of Saints 97 CHAPTER XIII. TROADITISSA. Dangerous Ground—Disappointment—Easter-Eve Festivities—An Official Menace—Hear of a Gentleman—Demons and Kobolds—Fini—Arrival—Stable Accommodation—The Dragoman again—Hunger—Cloister Rations—Wine makes the Heart Glad—A Village Congregation—After Mass—Hospitality of the Church—Beautiful Girls—Doctors required—Fasting—Precious Relic—Russian Gift—The Picture endowed with Healing Powers—Gratitude— Mountains and Trees—Heat—Shepherds 112 CHAPTER XIV. CYPRIAN WOODS AND FORESTS. Neglect of Forests—Preservation by former Rulers—Gradual Destruction—Shipbuilding—Exportation of Timber— Wanton Destruction—Forest Fires—Resin and Pitch—Process of extracting Resin—Suicidal Revenge—Protection required—British Legislation—The late Governor of Cyprus—Sad Prospect for the Island—Eucalyptus 121 CHAPTER XV. PLAGUES OF LOCUSTS. Locusts in olden Times—An Egyptian Plague for Two Years—Gradual Increase—Young Locusts—Devastation— Energy of Turkish Pacha—Troops are called out—A Remedy is found—M. Mattei—The Locusts effectually stopped 127 CHAPTER XVI. CHRYSOROGIATISSA. Rivers of Southern Cyprus—Rippling Waters—View of the Monastery of Kikku—A valuable Picture—Panagia—Wild Fruits—The Monks disturbed—Fine Figure of the Saviour—Carvings—Breakfast with the Abbot—Deserted State of the Country—Robbers—Alarm of the Servants—Prisons—Execution of Criminals—An interesting Prisoner—A Cypriote Robin Hood—Dowries to a Thousand Girls—A romantic Thief—Prison Life—Stalwart Monks—Turkish Women—Miserable Huts—Approach to Paphos—Ktima—Advent of Venus 130 CHAPTER XVII. THE TEMPLE OF VENUS. xii xiii Bishop of Baffo—View of the Ruins—Gigantic Stones—Old Temple—Curious Holes in Stones, producing Echo— Mosaics—Sacrificial Rites—The Idol Stone—Ruins of former City—View from the Temple—An Admirer of Sappho—A Turkish Farmer—Queen’s Cave—An inscribed Stone Slab—Rock-cut Tombs—Watch-tower—Dinner: Bill-of-Fare—A Turkish Housewife—Nocturnal Reflections—Worship of Venus—Holy Cloth for the Caaba—The Cone-shaped Stones—Doves of Venus—Meteoric Stones 139 CHAPTER XVIII. SUMMER RESIDENCE IN CYPRUS. Donkeys and Mules—Muleteers—Starting on a Journey—Mounted!—Commissariat of Travelling Cypriote—General Cesnola—Village of Dali—Out-door Nights in Summer—A delightful Retreat 149 CHAPTER XIX. CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. Family Affection—Female Influence—Modern Greeks—Bad Qualities—Simony—Flatterers—Luxury—Taking his Ease—Shameful Effeminacy 155 CHAPTER XX. CLIMATE AND TEMPERATURE. Syrian Heat—Cool Mountain Breezes—Fevers—Wine, a Remedy for Ague—Seasons—Excessive Heat—Hot Winds— Scarcity—Spring—September—L’Imbat—Snow 161 CHAPTER XXI. BAPPO AND KURLIA. Dealer in Curiosities—Ktima—Rock-cut Tombs—Palæo Castro—Graves—Antiquities—Ossuaries—Relics of Funeral Feasts—Ruins of a Temple—St. Paul—Koloni—Asbestos—Sacred Garden—Bath of Aphrodite—Ieroskipo— Kapatah—Ancient Harbour—Ruins of Churches—Buried Treasures—A Cyprian Dinner—Tombs—Arsinœ— Loadstone Temple—Berenice—Treasures for Naturalists—Tax-gatherers 167 CHAPTER XXII. EPISKOPI. Coffee-house—Thistle Seeds—Snake—Game—Adimu—Apollo Hylades Guard Houses—Pirates—Lycos—Egyptian Beauties—No Accommodation 179 CHAPTER XXIII. KOLOSSIN. A Turkish Farmer—Square Tower—Oxen—Norman Architecture—An old Fortress—Knights Templars—Wine— Beccaficos 184 CHAPTER XXIV. SOIL AND MINERAL PRODUCTS. Mountains—Rich Soil—Alluvial Deposits—Gardens—Cooper Mines—Gold and Silver—Salt—Volcanic Eruptions— Precious Stones—Amber—Asbestos—Robes of the Priests 191 CHAPTER XXV. NATURAL PRODUCTS. Under the Lusignans—Wine, Oil, &c.—Carob-tree—Cyprian Dyes—Grasping Policy of Venice—Olive-trees— Government of Cyprus—A valuable Farm—Sultan of Egypt—Tribute—Turks—Flowers—Tobacco—Corn— Timber—Flowers—Fertility of Soil—Jujube-tree—Distilled Oils—Cotton—Silk—Game—Wine—Taxes—Decline of Cultivation—Poor fare—Potatoes—Spiders—Beef and Mutton 194 CHAPTER XXVI. ST. NICHOLAS AND LIMASOL. News of Marble Relics—Off to search—Heavy Weather—Church of St. Nicholas—Ancient Temple—Monastery Garden—Salt Marsh—Building Houses—Turkish Women, Coquetry—Franciscan Convent—Monastic Graveyard— A new Church—A smart Man—Manufacture of Antiquities—A Parade round the Town—Hospitable Priests— Schools—Domestic Economy of Cyprian Family—A Cyprian Lady—Chinese Nobility—Prospects of Trade— Population—Revenue—Bribery 202 CHAPTER XXVII. AMATHUS. A Morning Ride—A sudden Change—The devouring Lion—Heat—Favoured Tracts—Site of Amathus—Export of Stone—A natural Fortress—Hamath—French Antiquarians—A precious Relic—Vandalism by French Officers— Gigantic Vases—Adonis—Anemones—Feasts—Pygmalion—Paphos, Son of Pygmalion—Under the Ptolemies— Remains of the City—Excavations—Amathus, the City—Mania for Destruction—Capo delle Gatte—Cats 211 CHAPTER XXVIII. KARUBIEH AND MAZOTOS. xiv xv xvi Cape Karubieh—Deserted Village—Fruit Ships—Fruit—Carob-trees—A Cyprian Farm-house—Our worthy hostess— Light soil—Farm Labourers—Cost of living—Priests—Hospitality—Kiti—Mount of the Holy Cross—St. Helena— Sacred Relic—Game—Wine 220 CHAPTER XXIX. LAST DAYS OF LARNAKA. Dancing Girls—Aphrodite—St. George the Martyr—Patron Saint of England—Legend of St. George—Tenets of the Greek Church—Clergy—Churches—Servia—Panagia—Sunday Trading—Handsome Girls—Cypriote Husbands— Turkish Houses—Departure from the Island 226 CHAPTER XXX. EFFORTS OF THE GERMANS TO OBTAIN CYPRUS Frederick the Second—An imperial Marriage—Cyprian Opinions—Barons—Knights—Importance of Cyprus as a Military Position—Regency—Quarrels—Promises of Amendment—Form of Government—Departure of the Emperor—The Emperor denounced—Sedition—Terms of Peace—The Emperor is crowned—State of Cyprus— Civil Wars—Rebellion—The Verse-maker—Success of Ibelin 234 CHAPTER XXXI. MARSHAL FELINGHER. Cyprus lost—A Fleet sent—Ibelin at Beyrut—Internal Disaffection—Defeat of Ibelin—Strenuous Efforts to raise Money—Bank Notes—The Genoese Rise—Defeat of the Imperialists—Death of Queen Alice—Peaceful Proposals— Renewed Hostilities—Papal Interference—The last of German Influence 256 CHAPTER XXXII. CYPRUS AND THE EUPHRATES VALLEY RAILWAY. The Projected Railway—Cyprus a Terminal Station—Sir F. Goldsmid—Position of Cyprus—Ports—Commerce— Harbours—Different Routes for Line—Mr. W.P. Andrew—Political Importance of Line—Fertility of adjacent Country—Re-opening a neglected Country—India nearer Home 269 Appendix. 283 A MAP SHOWING THE RELATION OF CYPRUS TO THE ADJACENT COASTS. CYPRUS, HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. xvii xviii 1 CHAPTER I. LARNAKA. The first approach to Larnaka, the chief sea-port of Cyprus, is well calculated to impress the traveller. The boundless expanse of blue sky and sea, the bold outline of the hills and mountains, brought out as they are into sharp relief by the clearness and brilliancy of the atmosphere, seem to throw the works of man far into the background and boldly assert the simple grandeur of nature. Such were my involuntary reflections as we dropped anchor in the roads of Larnaka on April 21st, 1877. This entrance to the island displays an expansive bay, the yellow sands of which are bordered by an extensive plain, broken by bare and rocky hills, and in the blue distance backed by a chain of mountains. A landscape was before me, in which the towns, gardens, and buildings constituted only minor accessories. Larnaka appeared as a mere speck on the bosom of the open country. The haven contains about fifty houses, built in the centre of the curve of the bay, and above them wave the variegated flags of the different consulates, surmounted by pointed minarets and a new belfry. The town of Larnaka itself lies far behind, and is separated by wide fields from the haven. Thanks to the kindness of the German consul, a friendly welcome awaited me at the landing-place, where I found a dragoman ready to conduct me to my destination. Before leaving the haven, however, I inspected its streets, which presented an animated appearance. Artisans plied their trades in all directions, and dirt reigned supreme. The rows of houses interspersed with stately mansions, churches, and gardens, filled with waving palms, constitute its principal attractions; all else is strictly Oriental, namely, its filth, rags, and miserable huts of wood and clay. In the Catholic church, we found a solitary monk, who showed us some fine carvings. The pictures upon the partition which separates the altar from the rest of the church are diligently kissed by the worshippers. I could not but approve this custom, if only from the fact that a law of the church required that no one should salute the sacred pictures without previously washing his face. This ceremony takes place once a week, so that, happily, the gold and silver covered panels are not distinguished by a black circle in the spots where they are kissed. With the exception of an occasional block of marble built into the walls of a house, or a sarcophagus, utilised as a receptacle for water, I saw nothing to recall the ancient power of the busy crowds that once animated this spot. Their tombs, excavated in the stratum of chalk, which lies below the surface, were once filled with marble sarcophagi, which century by century have been dragged out and employed for building purposes. Hence the revolting name given to this town, for Larnaka, literally interpreted, means simply a coffin. Others, however, assert that the name is derived from the fact that the houses were built upon the site of an ancient graveyard. The Phœnicians are believed to have first founded a town here and called it Kiti; by the Greeks it was known as Kition, and from this source was derived the Asiatic designation of Kitier, for the inhabitants of Cyprus. At a later date Grecian settlers took possession of it; artists, weavers, and artisans in large numbers poured in, and dwelt side by side with the Syrians, but occupying their own part of the town, gradually introducing their own language to common use as in Antioch and Alexandria, and giving a Grecian tone to the education of the higher classes. The Latin tongue, on the contrary, seems never to have gained a footing in the East. Cyprus, however, formed an exception to this rule, and during the four centuries that the island was subject to the sway of the Lusignan dynasty, and Venetian rule, Latin was in general use. Not a trace of it, however, now remains. Modern Greek is spoken, even in most of the Turkish houses, and is understood in every part of the country. The consulate body in Larnaka has representatives from every state in Europe. Its haven is the best in the island, although on account of the shallowness of the water, vessels are compelled to steer clear of the sand and ride at some distance from the town. The whole of this interesting island may be regarded as one huge graveyard, the treasures of which are disclosed at every turn of the spade. In Idalion, the Greeks, it appears, had formerly made their graves three feet below the surface, and, probably unknown to themselves, only some three or four feet above those occupied by the Phœnician colonists. In these graves, now filled up by the drifting earth of successive centuries, are found embedded small earthen articles, trinkets, coins, and a great variety of interesting trifles. Amongst other articles shown me, were elegant little figures, sucking bottles for children, and every variety of vases and cups in clay and glass.[1] What struck me most, however, were some delicate gold chains and ear-rings, and some yellowish blue vases of Phœnician glass. Towards evening I visited the chief part of the town, which is about a quarter of an hour’s walk from the haven, and called upon the bishop. Here I learnt many interesting facts concerning the recent improvements made in means of popular education. Until thirty years ago, schools were strictly prohibited, whereas now, every town has its training school; whilst in three of the chief towns, Larnaka, Nikosia, and Limasol, these are of three grades, and in them are taught history, geography, and Grecian literature, even to the reading of Homer and Xenophon. The prices for these classes are from 100 to 300 marks. Anything over and above this charge is covered by the bishop, and a toll upon the exports and imports of the towns. I then visited the church of St. Lazarus, which is surrounded by fine rows of pillars, with pointed arches, which give an impressive and sacred aspect to the building. The main part of the church is built in the form of a cross, with a dome in the centre, and is evidently of great antiquity. The building comprises three long large vaults, surmounted by three small cupolas. It seems that the Pacha Kudschuk Mehemed commanded the demolition of these domes, on the ground that only a mosque should be so adorned, but after long and earnest entreaties, at last yielded so far as to consent to their being only half torn down, and the openings filled up with planks. They were afterwards restored, and fifteen years ago, a handsome clock tower was erected, surmounted by the Russian double eagle. 2 3 4 5 When I issued from the church, evening had closed in, and the priests, robed in black, with lights in their hands, lent an air of solemn mystery to this fine building. St. Lazarus is supposed to have died in Cyprus, and his marble coffin, adorned with one rose, stands in a narrow recess. The tomb is empty; the bones, in all probability, having been taken possession of by the Venetians as sacred relics. Next morning I wandered out to explore the environs of the town. The air was spring-like and balmy, flowers, amongst which I observed tulips and hyacinths, enlivened the ground, and the blue waves danced in the light of the sun. Waving palms and high hedges of Indian cactus, hid the haven from my sight, and lent an air of solitude and repose to the whole scene, whilst as far as the eye could reach, the fields were filled with fruit trees, and the landscape enlivened by flocks of goats and sheep. The whole scene formed an Oriental picture of great beauty, and I could not help exclaiming to myself, “If this is the worst part of the country what a paradise the interior must be!” In the evening, having obtained the loan of a fine Arab horse, I rode off to investigate a curious building, at no great distance from the town. This remarkable structure, which is half embedded in the earth and rock, resembles a baker’s oven, and is high enough to permit a man to stand upright within it. The sides are formed of large blocks of stone, and the roof covered by one huge slab. This erection is divided into three parts. A small chamber is hewn in the bare rock, which forms a natural wall at the back of the structure. Formerly a similar chamber opened upon the front of the large centre portion, but this is now destroyed These apartments seem to have been closed by slabs let down from above into grooves, which are still visible. This ruin was probably first used by the Phœnicians as a burial-place, and at a later date consecrated to the virgin mother Phaneromene Panagia. This spot has a great attraction for the peasant women of the surrounding country, who believe that its sacred walls possess a peculiar virtue for those suffering from grievous sickness or for childless women. These latter often make pilgrimages hither, carrying a lamp concealed under their garments. At the entrance the lamp is kindled, and the suppliant steps barefooted into the third chamber, where she offers her prayers to Panagia, and leaves her lamp as a votive offering. Turkish women, I am informed, also practise this ceremony. At a very short distance from this interesting relic, and almost close to the sea, lies the celebrated lake from which the Phœnicians extracted the salt they so largely exported. Its value has in this respect by no means deteriorated. During the winter rains it becomes filled with brackish water, which evaporates as in a vast cauldron, under the burning sun of July and August, and deposits a thick coat of fine salt at its bottom. Night soon closes in in these latitudes, and as I left the spot, the sun suddenly lit up sea, sky, and earth in one blaze of glowing colour, and then rapidly sank to rest. Darkness at once set in, and I rode home through a silence as complete, and a solitude as profound, as if I were traversing the open desert. The cause of unhealthiness in most towns in Cyprus is quite local and easily removed. Thus round Larnaka and Famagusta are marshes which infect the air, and are apt to induce fever and ague in summer. 6 7 8 9 CHAPTER II. ATHIENU. At seven o’clock the following morning I started for Athienu, and as I passed through the streets of Larnaka, the town was still quiet, and almost empty. The better class of houses stand within a court-yard and garden, and are furnished with large verandahs, supported by light pillars. Women and girls of the lowest class were to be seen lounging about the narrow, crooked streets. As I quitted the town, the day became all that a traveller could desire. The air was bright and pure, and a balmy breeze swept over the green plains. The swallows were skimming through the air, and countless larks were trilling their sweetest notes. Cyprus, I must here observe, is very bountifully supplied with birds. I was told that many thousand larks were offered in the market-place of Larnaka. The eggs of the partridge are still more esteemed, and I have often heard the call of these birds in the grass towards evening. As I pursued my journey, I soon found myself between ranges of chalk hills, and then passed for miles over bleached and barren highlands. These form part of a chain of hills, connected towards the south with the western range of mountains, and extending in a long line to the sea. Very rarely, we passed a little hut, standing in a blooming garden, and forming a veritable oasis in this miniature desert. As I reached the last height, I obtained a peep of the sea near Larnaka, whilst before me, towards the northern portion of the island, towered a superb range of mountains, bristling with innumerable peaks, and tinted with various shades of brown. This chain extends north of the western mountains to the coast, where passing onwards into the sea, it forms the groundwork of the Carpasian peninsula. To my left were also broad, dark, stupendous mountains, running through the whole western portion of the island. One peak, the “Troados,” formerly the Cyprian “Olympus,” reared a snow-covered crown. At my feet lay the extensive plains of Messaria, watered by mountain streamlets, and forming one huge cornfield. A group of thirteen camels, tended by two negroes, stood in a pasture ground beneath me, and imparted a still more Eastern character to the scene. These negroes were probably paid servants, but formerly black slaves were commonly employed in this island. The Government has forbidden this traffic in human flesh; but as a negro will do a better day’s work than five Cypriotes, their introduction is winked at, and many are landed in the northern havens, and are taken by night to the neighbouring mountains. About noon I reached the town of Athienu, the inhabitants of which are considerably above the average Cypriote in manliness and intelligence. I learnt that they trace their descent from the famous defenders of the powerful fortress, Famagusta, which, in the Middle Ages, stood upon the western part of the island. Famagusta is encumbered with débris, and the covered pits from which the Turks assaulted the walls in the sixteenth century, are now stagnant marshes. After the fall of Nikosia, this fortress had resisted the Turkish arms for more than a year, under the command of the brave Venetian captain, Bragadino. In vain the Turkish General Seraskier Mustapha stormed the place. Six times his men rushed on, their swords between their teeth, fascines and ladders in their hands, and six times they were driven back with great slaughter. Mustapha was furious, his best troops were gone, and he well knew his head must pay the penalty at Constantinople should he return unsuccessful. The town was invested, and six months later, when every scrap of food and ammunition was exhausted, the starving people forced their captain to surrender. Mustapha at once proposed the most honourable terms. The garrison were to retain their arms and baggage, and be sent in Turkish ships to Crete. Whoever desired to go to another part of the island might do so with all his possessions, whilst those who preferred to remain, were to be perfectly unmolested, both as regarded their religion and property. On the 5th August, 1571, the fortress was taken possession of by the Turkish fleet, and Bragadino at once rode down to the shore, accompanied by three generals, to deliver up the keys to his captors. Over his head was a red silk umbrella, and on his shoulders a purple mantle that swept the ground, in token of his distinguished rank. Mustapha received him, at first, with all honour; but in the course of conversation, became so insolent that Bragadino replied to him in angry terms. The four generals were at once attacked, Bragadino’s nose and ears cut off, and his companions hewn to pieces. Three hundred men of his garrison were mercilessly butchered, and a scene of carnage and pillage ensued which lasted three days. Only a small remnant of the higher classes were allowed to escape, on condition that they should separate and settle in the principal towns. Bragadino was fastened to a rope and dropped into the sea, from which he was again fished out, laded with two baskets of earth and sent to the new Turkish entrenchments. On his arrival he was seized, thrown down, and slowly tortured to death, amidst the gibes and brutal laughter of Mustapha and his followers. He died as he had lived, like a hero, but this did not protect his body from insult. His skin was stuffed with hay, placed on a cow, and led throughout the camp and town, and was finally attached to the mast of Mustapha’s ship, and taken to Constantinople, where the pitiless conqueror was received with open arms. I dined at the table of an Athenitan, and have seldom been better entertained; the room was small, but clean, and my hostess young and charming. Our fare, which was admirably cooked, consisted of fried eggs, roast fowl and pillau. For dessert, oranges, artichokes, and some excellent dark wine, were set before me. After dinner I enjoyed a refreshing sleep, and then bidding adieu to my good hosts, proceeded on my way. Dali, the ancient Idalion, was my next resting-place; here was formerly the Temple of Venus, now a mere heap of ruins, but I saw little worthy of note. These plains of Cyprus are watered by two streams, one of which flows east, and the other west. Both are named after the towns towards which they flow, the larger being called the Dali and the lesser the 10 11 12 13 Morfu. In ancient times these rivers were known as the Pedias and Satrachos, and both much resemble the Nile in appearance. During the rainy season these streams run rapidly, spreading their yellow waters over the surrounding country, and when they retire, leave a thick deposit of slime or mud. I am told that the Pedias was formerly called the Cyprian Nile. The table-like rocks of the plain of Messaria through which I now journeyed, form a very peculiar and interesting feature of its scenery. These rocks, called τραωεζαι, from their table-like appearance, are considered by the Cypriotes to be useless for agricultural purposes; I rode over several of them to test the truth of this assertion, and found the chalk only visible in certain parts, the rest of the surface being well fitted for the growth of vines and other plants. But of what avail is it, that a few hills might be cultivated, in a country whose fruitful plains for generations have not been touched by a plough or hoe? Not a sheep or goat was to be seen in the plains, once called by the ancients μακαρια, or the blessed. Now that Cyprus again enjoys the comforts of a judicious government, she will speedily bring forth all the fruits of the earth with profusion. This, however, will not be done without much difficulty and patient perseverance. A Cyprian ox! βοῦς χύωριος was the ancient nickname conferred upon the Cypriotes in derision of their stolid obtuseness. Dirty, but contented, they lounge through life without making the slightest effort to improve their condition. All emulation, or pride in their professions, seems to have died out under the weight of a tyrannical and unsympathetic government. The following short sketch of the cultivation of Cyprus, under the various dynasties, will show its extraordinary natural resources, and the field for enterprise that will be opened out under British sway: During the long centuries of Byzantine rule, many circumstances conduced to the animation of trade and proper cultivation of the fertile soil. Cyprus was long regarded as a veritable harbour of refuge, not only by those inhabiting the neighbouring Asiatic continent, but by the persecuted victims of various religious denominations, many of whom being quiet, industrious men, settled down at once in the country of their adoption as skilful tillers of the soil; whilst the Armenian and Syrian refugees taught and improved the arts of trade and commerce. The introduction of the silkworm into Cyprus must, however, be regarded as a main cause of its long prosperity. Until that time the wearing of silk was confined entirely to the highest classes, and it could only be procured, at enormous cost, of merchants travelling from India and China. In the year 557 two monks brought a quantity of silkworms’ eggs from India to offer them to the Emperor Justinian, who, appreciating their commercial value, caused them to be distributed over different provinces. In no place did their culture succeed as in Cyprus; the warm soft air, rarely agitated by wind and storm, exactly suited their requirements, and in a very short space of time the southern coasts, and other parts, were covered with mulberry trees for their sustenance, and the celebrated silk factories established and in full work. The rule of the Arab in Cyprus brought on the contrary decadence and misfortune in its train. These sons of the desert destroyed all before them, churches and temples were laid in ruins, and books committed to the flames. Once, however, settled in the conquered dominion, they gave themselves up to the enjoyment of their new possessions. Jews and Christians were employed in building new palaces, and in translating into Arabic the poetry of Persia and works of Eastern lore. For their own share of improvement the Arabs devoted themselves to the cultivation of plants, and arranged splendid and well-irrigated gardens, which they filled with trees and shrubs brought from Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. We learn that, as far as the island has been yet explored, it contains no less than one thousand different sorts of plants. The forest growth is more especially luxuriant. According to Herr linger, the “Pinus maritima,” in Cyprus, covers the hills and mountain regions to the height of 4000 feet, and one of the commonest trees, the “Pinus laricio,” which covers all the heights to 4000 feet above the sea, is met with on the western mountains of the island to 6000 feet, and gives them a dark appearance from the coast. The wild cypress, “Cupressus horizontalis,” is the third tree which grows commonly in the eastern part of the island, and in some places forms, by itself, whole woods. On the entire northern chain of mountains this wild cypress often grows at the height of 2000 feet to 3000 feet above the sea. Great forests of wild cypresses must have covered the whole of the south of the island, interspersed with a shrub, the “Juniperus Phœnicea.” In the north several varieties of oak are found, and throughout the island the arbutus abounds. The carob-tree, “Ceratonia siliqua,” and olive flourish on the banks of all the rivers, and up to an elevation of 1000 feet above the sea. The succulent pods of the carob-tree are exported to Egypt and Syria, while the pulp, which is called St. John’s bread, from its resemblance to manna, is used as an article of food. Orange and lemon trees, and date-palms, are also met with in great profusion. The cultivation of Cyprus during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was carried to great perfection, and was still flourishing in the two succeeding centuries. During the chivalrous dominion of the Lusignans, inconceivable wealth and almost unprecedented luxury overspread the whole island, and in all the neighbouring countries of the Mediterranean, Cyprus was spoken of as a miniature India, overflowing with treasure. Knights, philosophers, and adventurers streamed into the island. The prosperity of Cyprus must not, however, be attributed to these new and able immigrants, but to the fact that its revenues were no longer drained by its tributes to foreign potentates, and that its princes ruled with prudence and justice. These new comers to the island at once commenced cultivating the fruit trees of their native lands. Apple, pear, plum, and medlar trees, however, did not thrive, but cherries, peaches, bananas, and apricots came to great perfection, and Cyprus is still noted for its walnuts. An attempt was next made to introduce the sugar-cane, with much success, and Cyprian sugar was soon in great request. The art of refining had, however, not been introduced, and the sugar only took the form of small blackish grains. The cultivation of the grape, which had dated from most ancient times, acquired new vigour under these influences and 14 15 16 17 18 was speedily recognised as the choicest vintage in the world. In no less esteem were held the silks and velvets woven in Cyprus, and the extended cultivation of the mulberry and the perfection of the art of weaving went hand in hand.[2] Syrian industry was united with European talent, and operatives from Persia, who came to give their services, brought with them seeds of the cotton-plant. So marvellously did this new venture prosper, that cotton was commonly known as the gold-plant, on account of its great commercial success. In Nikosia, the capital of Cyprus, large weaving establishments were at once formed for the production of the fine calico, for which Cyprus was soon noted. During the whole of the Middle Ages, Cyprus must be regarded as the garden in which tropical plants of all kinds were carefully acclimatised, and from thence introduced and distributed over Greece, Italy, S. France, Spain, the Canary Islands, and America. A short distance from Nikosia, I observed a party of soldiers standing in a court-yard on the roadside. As I approached they quietly sprang into their saddles, and rode towards me with their sabres in their hands. On reaching me they saluted, and one of the party advancing, informed me, with a graceful wave of his hand, that he had been sent by the Pacha of Cyprus to meet and conduct me to the lodging he had found for me. My new companion, who was a Catholic Armenian, speaking both French and Italian, chatted gaily to me as we rode on side by side. Our path lay through a valley between the hills which still hid the city from our eyes. As soon as we reached the rising ground, hundreds of waving palm-trees were before us, interspersed with slender minarets, whilst here and there a fine dome, towering high, announced to me that the capital of Cyprus lay before us. A veritable gem of Eastern beauty it looked in the bright sunlight, its white walls and painted minarets standing gaily out from the green, well-watered plain and graceful palms, whilst fine belfries and Gothic churches gave an air of grandeur to the view. As we approached the sun went rapidly down, gold and purple clouds rolled over our heads, and the air was filled with a soft and delicious breeze. At the gates of the town we were met by a party of lepers begging for alms; the revolting sight seemed to throw a feeling of horror over the whole scene. Happily the unfortunates are not permitted to enter the city. We were now requested to form ourselves into a file in order to make our entrance in a becoming manner. Two soldiers went first with naked sabres in their hands, then followed the captain, then myself, and in my rear, our servants and baggage. In this wise we galloped along as rapidly as our mules would carry us, and as we passed through the bazaars and streets the people gathered about us and offered a respectful welcome. A narrow dirty street brought us to the door of my lodging, where I was received by the host and his servants with many impressive genuflections. Here I parted with my friendly conductors, after offering them a return, in solid cash, which they evidently expected, for their civilities. The captain of the party shortly after returned to invite me to visit the governor, who belonged to a noble Bosnian family, at his residence. This gentleman had travelled much, and had visited both Paris and Vienna. He received me with all the grace of a European, and gave me much valuable information respecting this interesting town. What delighted me most, however, was the gift of an excellent map of the country, a treasure I had vainly attempted to obtain ever since my arrival, and which proved invaluable to me in all my journeyings. As I returned home the city lay in perfect rest, not a creature was to be seen, and the streets were only enlivened by the gambols of a few wretched homeless dogs. 19 20 21 CHAPTER III. NIKOSIA. This city, called by the Greeks Levkosia, and by the Turks Lefkoscha, impressed me more than any other Oriental town I have visited. An indescribable blending of Eastern and Western characteristics meets the eye at every turn, and imparts a familiar appearance to the strange and interesting scene. How shall I give an idea of the uproar that roused me from my slumbers early next morning? Trumpets were sounding, muezzins were chanting in drawling tones from the tops of all the minarets, countless crows and ravens combined with cocks and hens to outvie in their performance, the braying of asses, and groaning of camels. Whilst over all clanged the bells from every belfry in the city. The following day being Easter-eve, this music commenced at midnight, and continued without interruption till morning, varied, however, by the firing of every old gun that could be mustered for the occasion. In passing through the streets of the town, I observed through the gates of the high-walled gardens many varieties of fruit trees, apple, pear, and figs; orange, lemon, mulberry, and pomegranate trees also lent their blossoms to give the finishing touches to the scene. The garden walls are high, but not so lofty as to exclude from view the slender white minarets, dark cypresses, and waving palms that they enclose. Half Nikosia is made up of these lovely gardens. Everywhere water-pipes are gently pouring forth their offerings to the thirsty ground, and the whole town is redolent of perfume. The Cyprian sky resembles that of the Nile valley in its cloudless, deep blue, and is equally beautiful in its clear expanse; while as for the climate, a very few days in its soft, delicious, balmy air makes one understand why, of all the Grecian islands, Cyprus should have been allotted the privilege of being regarded as the favorite residence of the Goddess of Love. At first I felt inclined to linger in this lovely spot and make myself acquainted with its literature; but a nearer view showed me my time would not be profitably spent. Society there was none, the few Europeans the city contained being entirely engaged in striving to make a little money. Domestic life in Cyprus is generally confined within the precincts of its beautiful gardens, and in most of its relations is strictly Turkish. Women of the higher classes in Nikosia wear a delicate white veil and silken garments, instead of the bright blue, yellow, and red veil usually seen in the other towns. Dr. Clarke, in his “Travels,” says:—“The interesting costume presented in the dress of the Cyprian ladies ought not to pass unnoticed. Their head apparel was precisely modelled after the kind of calathus represented upon the Phœnician idols of the country and Egyptian statues. This was worn by women of all ranks, from the wives of the consuls to their slaves. Their hair, dyed of a fine brown colour by means of a plant called ‘henna,’ hung behind in numerous long straight braids; and, in some ringlets disposed near the face, were fastened blossoms of the jessamine, strung together upon strips of leaves of the palm-tree in a very curious and pleasing manner. Next to the Calmuck women, the Grecians are, of all others, best versed in cosmetic arts. They possess the valuable secret of giving a brown colour to the whitest locks, and also tinge the eyebrows the same hue, an act that would be highly prized in London and Paris. The most splendid colours are displayed in their habits, and these are very becoming to the girls of the island. The upper robe is always of scarlet, crimson, or green silk, embroidered with gold. Like other Greek women, they wear long scarlet pantaloons, fastened round the ankle, and yellow boots, with slippers of the same colour. Around the neck and from the head are suspended a profusion of gold coins, chains, and other trinkets. About their waists they have a large belt, or zone, fastened in front by two large and heavily-polished brass plates. They endeavour to make the waist as long as possible, and their legs consequently short. Naturally corpulent, they take no pains to diminish the size of their bodies by lacing, but seem rather vain of their bulk, exposing their bosoms at the same time in a manner highly unbecoming. Notwithstanding the extraordinary pains they use to disfigure their natural beauty by all manner of ill-selected ornament, the women of Cyprus are handsomer than those of any other Grecian island. They have a taller and more stately figure, and the features, particularly of the women of Nikosia, are regular and dignified, exhibiting that elevated cast of countenance so universally admired in the works of Greek artists. At present this kind of beauty seems peculiar to the women of Cyprus.” The women of Nikosia walk lightly and gracefully, instead of presenting the appearance, as do many of their country- women, of stuffed sacks rolling along, and unlike most Turkish ladies, can often boast neat and slender figures. In my own opinion the town does not contain more than 12,000 inhabitants, many, however, estimate their number as 18,000. In former times Nikosia was some miles in circumference and was three times as large as it is now. Ruins of churches and cloisters are to be seen in all directions outside the present town. Of late years the Greek and Turkish inhabitants associate much more freely than formerly. Turkish servants are often met with in Greek houses, and intermarriages are by no means uncommon. The dress of the peasantry is almost Turkish, and pillau, essentially a Turkish dish, is commonly seen on every table in the island. Many of the professed Mussulmans are actually Christians, and have their children baptised in secret. Their forefathers were followers of the Prophet through fear and compulsion, and it would expose any one to much persecution and obloquy, who openly declared that he no longer belonged to that faith. During the days of Venetian rule, many Italian words became grafted into the language, whilst French, on the contrary, is entirely forgotten in Cyprus. In Nikosia, the Turkish inhabitants pride themselves on the purity with which they speak th...