The relationship of civil society organizations (CSOs) and political parties in post-Suharto Indonesia: a women’s CSO perspective Dissertation Zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Philoshopie am Fachbereich Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Hamburg vorgelegt von Aditya Perdana aus Jakarta, Indonesien Hamburg, Februar 2017 Erstgutachter : PD Dr. Andreas Ufen Zweitgutachter : Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit Ort und Datum der Disputation: Hamburg, 9.Februar 2017 Eidesstattliche Versicherung Hiermit erkläre ich, Aditya Perdana, an Eides statt, dass ich die Dissertation mit dem Titel: The relationship of civil society organizations (CSOs) and political parties in post-Suharto Indonesia: a women’s CSO perspective Selbständig und ohne fremde Hilfe verfasst habe. Andere als die von mir angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel habe ich nicht benutzt. Die den herangezogenen Werken wörtlich oder sinngemäss entnommenen Stellen sind als solche gekennzeichnet. Hamburg, 9.Februar 2017 Abstract The relationship of civil society organizations (CSOs) and political parties in post-Suharto Indonesia: a women’s CSO perspective This study seeks to examine the distant relationship that exists between CSOs and parties within the new Indonesian democracy because of their nature of organizations and the influence of political and social structures to their relations. The main research question in this study is: How does the distant relationship between women’s CSOs and political parties affect selected gender equality issues in post-Suharto Indonesia? This is supported by two sub-questions: (1) to what extent have Indonesian women’s CSOs been linked with political parties since the fall of Suharto in 1998? (2) How distant relationships between women’s CSOs and parties contribute to the development of women’s political representation in Indonesia? The aim of this study is to contribute to the existing theories about political parties and society that elaborate on political representation from a women’s civil society organizational perspective. The results will provide capacity-building development insights for women’s civil society actors and members of political parties who want to learn more about the dynamics of both these institutions and the strategies that political parties and CSOs use to establish and develop relationships in Indonesia. This study can be categorized as a single case study with a synchronic and diachronic variations This study uses a combined co-variational analysis and causal-process tracing to explore suitable inquiries from observations of two events: the policy-making process for gender issues and women’s political representation roles. This dissertation broadly asserts two hypotheses. First, it hypothesizes that enabling environmental factors (internal and external) in the relationship between women’s CSOs and political parties explain their contribution to political representation in democracies in general. The second hypothesis is that the informal and distant relations between women’s CSOs and political parties have contributed to the development of women’s political representation in the consolidated democracy of post-Suharto Indonesia. This study confirms that a distant relationship has been maintained between CSOs and political parties following the decline of the Suharto regime, due to their limited relationship in the political sphere, weak connections, and limited direct influence. Although the distant relationship between women’s CSOs and parties in Indonesia appears to support a picture of weak institutionalized party and fragmented CSO, however the autonomy of each organization in terms of their political interactions needs to be balanced to succeed. Two major findings are: the first is enabling combination of environmental factors (external and internal) to shape the distance of the relationship. The second finding is that women’s CSOs and party links in the law-making process and certain representation roles are informed by informal and personal relationships. i These two major findings indicate a distant relationship between women’s CSOs and political party interactions over certain gender equality issues. From tracing several Indonesian historical events and focusing on the late post-Suharto period, the study confirms that this distant relationship has been caused by certain post-cartelization phenomena and weak institutionalization phenomena. What are the implications of this study in terms of the development of democratization theory? First, this study has contributed to the CSO political party linkage theories. Secondly, this study also supports the claim that the role of civil society is to strengthen democratic representation. Third, this study has presented discussions of gender and political theory, particularly in relation to Pitkin (1967)’s three models of political representation: formal, descriptive, and substantive. This study therefore proposes two areas for future research. Firstly, it is suggested that democratization studies require further exploration into the role that authoritarian legacies play in political institutions. It was not possible in this study to fully explore and explain how the roots of authoritarian legacies from the history of Indonesian democracy are still embedded in society today. Such research could focus on the development of religious organizations such as NU and Muhammadiyah which have close attachment with parties and individual politicians until these days. A second rich area for future research is the development and support of empirical political involvement mechanisms for civil society. ii Acknowledgements This PhD dissertation is an important part of my academic experiences. It is a journey of research discovery, challenge, uncertainty and patience. Many individuals and institutions have supported me to complete this adventure. While it is hard to send my thanks individually, allow me to show my appreciation to these people through this acknowledgment. First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor PD Dr. Andreas Ufen for the continuous support of my PhD study and related research, for his patience, motivation, and sharing his immense knowledge in Indonesian politics. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this dissertation. I am also grateful to have Prof. Cord Jakobeit as my second advisor to this dissertation. Besides both my advisors, I would like to thank the rest of my dissertation committee: Prof. Rolf von Lüde and Prof. Joachim Betz for their insightful comments and encouragements. Let me express my gratitude to the German Academic Exchange Services (DAAD) that funded the whole dissertation project during my stay in Hamburg from 2010-2014. I also thank the GIGA (German Institute of Global and Area Studies) that provided me a one month visiting fellow to finish my manuscript of dissertation. My sincere thank goes also to Prof. Jan van der Putten and Yanti Mardiyanti (Institute Asia and Africa AAI Universität Hamburg) who provided me an opportunity to join their lecturing team, and to the Graduate School Faculty of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences Universität Hamburg who provided a decent working space for me. Without they precious support it would have not been possible for me to conduct and finish this research. The dissertation would not have been possible without the hospitality and generosity of my interviewees from various backgrounds such as politicians, activists, academics, journalists and others. I am glad to hear their comments, valuable insights, background materials, and suggestions. I have learned and gained a lot of understanding about gender and politics in Indonesia from them. My host institute, Department of Political Science Universitas Indonesia, has provided a great opportunity to release my working activities for gaining this doctoral degree. I am grateful for my colleagues' support to encourage me to keep calm and patience during my exhausting final stage of study. I presented ideas of this study at international conferences, workshops, and doctoral seminars. It was nice to have many insight and valuable comments from all participants in these conferences. I also thank to my English editors: Suzan Piper and Janine Murphy for their constructive discussions to edit my manuscript. I am grateful to have Indonesian friends and families in Hamburg to share their unconditional love and joyful moments with me and my family. iii Last but not the least, I would like to thank to my family, my parents and to my brother and sister for supporting me spiritually throughout writing this dissertation and my life in general. iv Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Contents v List of tables, diagrams, and tables viii List of Indonesian terms and acronyms ix Chapter ONE: Introduction 1 1.1 CSOs and political party linkages – a distant link 1 1.2 Political representation of civil society and political party 3 perspectives 1.3 Indonesian CSOs and parties: women’s political representation 4 issues 1.4 Research arguments and methods 7 1.5 Chapter overview 9 Chapter TWO: Theoretical framework and methodology 12 2.1 Historical institutionalism 12 2.2 The nature of civil society and political parties in democracies 14 2.3 CSOs and parties in post-cartelization era: their relationships 23 2.3.1 Defining the relationships 22 2.3.2 Typologies of relationships in democracies 26 2.4 Women’s political representation: institutions and strategies 27 2.5 Indonesian CSOs and political parties: conceptual clarification 31 2.6 Research arguments and hypotheses 36 2.7 Methodology 41 2.7.1 Case study methodology 41 2.7.2 Case selection 43 2.7.3 Analysis and data collection methodology: combining 46 co-variational analysis and causal-process tracing 2.8 Summary 47 Chapter THREE: Civil society organizations (CSOs) and 49 political parties in Indonesia v 3.1 The historical legacies of the relationships between CSOs and 51 parties in Indonesia 3.1.1 Societal cleavages in Indonesian politics 51 3.1.2 Configuration of representative structures 58 3.1.3 The legacies of the actors 63 3.2 The rule of the game: the legal framework 65 3.3 CSOs and parties: their relationship periods 71 3.4 Conclusion 81 Chapter FOUR: Women and the law-making process 85 4.1 Women in Indonesian social and political structures 85 4.2 Parliamentary quotas for women: Election and Party Laws 92 (1999-2009) 4.3 The Domestic Violence Law (2004) 123 4.4 The Gender Equality and Justice bill 134 4.5 The relations between CSOs and political parties in the 140 law-making process: patterns and political positions 4.6 Conclusion 146 Chapter FIVE: Women and political representation 148 5.1 Female candidate selection problems: 2004 and 2009 elections 148 5.2 Increasing female candidates in an election: the role of civil 158 society organizations 5.2.1 Developing a strategy of cooperation between parties and 158 women’s CSOs 5.2.2 CSO profiling of potential women candidates 160 5.2.3 Training for female candidates 162 5.2.4 Assisting female candidates with campaigning 164 5.3 Women’s CSOs activists and elections: strategies and tactics 167 for winning seats 5.3.1 Social backgrounds 168 5.3.2 Motivations 170 5.3.3 Women’s paths to achieving political ambitions 174 5.3.4 The impact of women activist candidates 182 5.4 The relations of CSOs and political parties during electoral 188 vi competition: patterns and political positions 5.5 Conclusion 200 Chapter SIX: Environmental factors shaping the relationship 202 between political parties and women’s CSOs in post-Suharto Indonesia 6.1 Factors shaping the relationships between CSOs and political 202 parties in post-Suharto Indonesia 6.2 The authoritarian regime legacies in Indonesian contemporary 210 politics 6.3 The impact of relationships on women’s political representation 215 6.4 Conclusion 217 Chapter SEVEN: Conclusion 219 Appendix 1 List of interviews 227 Appendix 2 Interview Guide 230 Bibliography 235 vii