Critical Code Studies Software Studies Lev Manovich and Noah Wardrip- Fruin, editors Expressive Processing: Digital Fictions, Computer Games, and Software Studies, Noah Wardrip-F ruin, 2009 Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life, Rob Kitchin and Martin Dodge, 2011 Programmed Visions: Software and Memory, Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, 2011 Speaking Code: Coding as Aesthetic and Political Expression, Geoff Cox and Alex McLean, 2012 10 PRINT CHR$(205.5+RND(1)); : GOTO 10, Nick Montfort, Patsy Baudoin, John Bell, Ian Bogost, Jeremy Douglass, Mark Marino, Michael Mateas, Casey Reas, Mark Sample, and Noah Vawter, 2012 The Imaginary App, Paul D. Miller and Svitlana Matviyenko, 2014 The Stack: On Software and Sovereignty, Benjamin H. Bratton, 2015 Coding Literacy: How Computer Programming Is Changing Writing, Annette Vee, 2017 The Software Arts, Warren Sack, 2019 Critical Code Studies, Mark C. Marino, 2020 Critical Code Studies Mark C. Marino The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England © 2020 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. This book was set in ITC Stone Serif Std and by ITC Stone Serif Std and ITC Stone Sans Std by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Marino, Mark C., author. Title: Critical code studies / Mark C. Marino. Description: Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press, 2020. | Series: Software studies | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019024253 | ISBN 9780262043656 (hardcover) Subjects: LCSH: Computer software--Social aspects. | Coding theory--Philosophy. | Programming languages (Electronic computers) | Rhetoric. Classification: LCC QA76.9.C66 M628 2020 | DDC 005.3--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024253 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 for my family, especially Barbara, Genevieve, & Dayveon who give my life meaning Contents Series Foreword ix Hacknowledgments xi 1 Introduction 1 2 Critical Code Studies: A Manifesto 37 3 The Transborder Immigrant Tool 55 4 Climategate 105 5 FLOW- MATIC 129 6 Kittler’s Code 161 7 Generative Code 199 8 Futures of Critical Code Studies 227 Final Words 239 Notes 241 Works Cited 251 Index 271 Series Foreword Software is deeply woven into contemporary life—e conomically, culturally, creatively, politically—i n manners both obvious and nearly invisible. Yet while much is written about how software is used and the activities that it supports and shapes, thinking about software itself has remained largely technical for much of its history. Increas- ingly, however, artists, scientists, engineers, hackers, designers, and scholars in the humanities and social sciences are finding that for the questions they face, and the things they need to build, an expanded understanding of software is necessary. For such understanding, they can call upon a strand of texts in the history of computing and new media; they can take part in the rich, implicit culture of software; and they also can take part in the development of an emerging, fundamentally transdisciplinary, computational literacy. These provide the foundation for software studies. Software studies uses and develops cultural, theoretical, and practice-o riented approaches to make critical, historical, and experimental accounts of (and interven- tions via) the objects and processes of software. The field engages and contributes to the research of computer scientists, the work of software designers and engineers, and the creations of software artists. It tracks how software is substantially integrated into the processes of contemporary culture and society, reformulating processes, ideas, institutions, and cultural objects around their closeness to algorithmic and formal description and action. Software studies proposes histories of computational cultures and works with the intellectual resources of computing to develop reflexive think- ing about its entanglements and possibilities. It does this both in the scholarly modes of the humanities and social sciences and in the software creation/research modes of computer science, the arts, and design. The Software Studies book series, published by the MIT Press, aims to publish the best new work in a critical and experimental field that is at once culturally and techni- cally literate, reflecting the reality of today’s software culture.