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This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Brunner-Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thompson, Rosemary, 1950- Crisis intervention and crisis management : strategies that work in schools and communities / Rosemary A. Thompson. p. ; cm. Inlcudes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-415-94818-5 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-415-94494-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. School crisis management—United States. 2. Crisis intervention (Mental health services)—United States. [DNLM: 1. Crisis Intervention—organization & administration. 2. Disaster Planning— organization & administration. 3. Crisis Intervention—methods. 4. Schools. 5. Terrorism. WA 295 T475c 2003] I. Title. 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incidents, disasters, and terrorism have be- come major concerns for school counselors, teachers, parents, and helping professionals. The status of crisis management in schools nationwide varies. Some school districts with strong leadership have developed building-specific crisis plans, require lock-down and evacuation drills, and provide extensive training to the building response teams in conjunction with local police, mental health workers, and other community providers. Simulation drills that involve students, staff, and community providers further solidify their skills and preparedness. The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, have changed not only the landscape of America but also the ways that schools and communities respond to crises, critical incidents, and potential disasters. Schools and communities continue to maintain a heightened sense of alert- ness that has the entire country feeling more vulnerable and perhaps less secure than at any time in our nation’s history. Administrators, teachers, and counselors may be held personally liable if crises, critical incidents, or disaster situations are handled improperly, or, in the worst-case scenario, if there is a failure to act when action is clearly called for, in order to ensure safety. Relative to a single successful or even unsuccessful lawsuit, the cost of training individuals in crisis management is negligible. In times of crisis, schools will need to respond immediately to prevent or reduce the possibility of further accidents and tragedies. Schools are not immune to naturally occurring conditions like earthquakes and can- not avoid completely unwanted disturbances or intrusions; however, school personnel can prevent unnecessary confusion and turmoil if they plan cer- tain steps to minimize the possibility of further accidents or tragedies on their school campus. Planning for schoolwide crises, critical incidents, and crisis response can significantly reduce disruption during times of chaos. A structured re- sponse by a trained team of school or community staff members, or both, can facilitate the return to a normal school routine and precrisis equilib- rium. Having crisis, critical incident, and disaster plans in place improves (cid:10)(cid:3)(cid:3) (cid:10)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3) (cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:5)-(cid:4)(cid:16)(cid:5) school morale, promotes safety and security, and enhances community re- spect and cohesiveness. Schools remain at the forefront as institutions of stability, continuity, and accountability. They are also viewed as resources of information, safety, and security whenever there is chaos or confusion. An overall school safety plan requires a thoughtful process for identify- ing security needs, developing prevention and intervention techniques, evalu- ating physical facilities, and providing communication and professional development for school and community members. This book serves as a collective resource for schools and communities by providing practical tech- niques and the best practice strategies to restore safety and security and to maintain continuity and integrity. Chapter 1 briefly examines international and domestic terrorism to pro- vide a perspective on why it is so critical to have contingency plans, profes- sional development, and the coordination of services between school and community agencies on an ongoing basis; that is, crisis, critical incident, and disaster plans are developed, reviewed, and practiced annually. Case managers may move to other jobs, community contacts may reorganize, and the school, the community, or both might change in terms of resources, experience, and commitment. Essentially, “plans are nothing, planning is everything”; this includes a concerted effort between the school and the community, students and families, educators and helping professionals. Chapter 2 differentiates between a crisis, a critical incident, and a disaster, which sets the stage for chapters 3, 4, and 5. Chapter 2, “Crises, Critical Incidents, Disasters, and Terrorism: Funda- mental Emotional Reactions From a Developmental Perspective,” outlines the wide range of emotional, physical, and cognitive reactions that young people experience by age level. It differentiates between normal behavior and stress- ful behavior. The ramifications of post-traumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, general anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia are out- lined, along with factors that increase the risk of lasting readjustment prob- lems. Essentially, the school district and its surrounding community are a unique blend of individuals from numerous disciplines that can bring the school, the community, or both to its precrisis equilibrium. Chapter 3, “Crisis Intervention and Crisis Management: First-Response Procedures,” delineates roles and responsibilities of crisis team members and stresses the importance of having a comprehensive crisis communica- tion contingency plan and first-response procedures. It delineates the roles and responsibilities of school administrators, teachers, and a school counse- lor as case manager, as well as staff duties. The importance of designating a care center for teachers and students is also outlined. The self-destructive behavior of students who may consider suicide is also examined, with a discussion of how to interview a student during a crisis, in addition to response and referral procedures. (cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:5)-(cid:4)(cid:16)(cid:5) (cid:3). Chapter 4, “Critical Incidents and First-Response Procedures,” identi- fies 18 potential critical incidents, from student assaults to terrorist attacks, with procedures to follow for each incident. It lists the members of Critical Incident Teams and outlines the characteristics and the duties of team mem- bers. The chapter includes a Critical Incident Faculty Survey to identify faculty and staff members who have expertise in CPR, first aid, or emer- gency management. Chapter 5, “Disasters and First-Response Procedures,” provides an over- view of tasks required for four distinct stages following a disaster: rescue state, early inventory state, late inventory stage, and reconstruction stage. This chapter addresses the special needs of children following a disaster, outlines nine typical disaster incidents, and concludes with a timely piece on homeland security. Chapter 6, “Strategies for the Resolution of Grief and Loss,” addresses ways to meet the needs of students and survivors in a physical, a cognitive, an emotional, and a behavioral context, which all interact interdependently. It outlines the states of nine stages of grief from shock and denial, to accep- tance, hope, and resilience. Common signs of grieving children are out- lined, as well as children’s concept of death from a developmental perspective. This chapter also provides 47 specific practical ideas to deal with grief and loss, for example, “The only answer to grief is action.” Chapter 7, “Debriefing Survivors Following a Crisis, a Disaster, or a Critical Incident,” provides an overview of what researchers are learning about trauma in children and adolescents; this includes the emotional ef- fects of trauma and how these differentiate according to developmental age. Psychological debriefing is explained, as well as critical incident stress management, seven core components of critical incident stress manage- ment, critical incident stress debriefing, suggestions for leading a school group, and post-traumatic stress debriefing. All components of this particular chapter are skills and tools, indicating what to do in each particular situation. Chapter 8, “Activities for Children and Adolescents to Process Grief and Loss,” includes behavioral reactions that adults can expect from their chil- dren, such as increased fear and anxiety, poor academic performance, irri- tability, and depressed feelings. Also included are activities that classroom teachers can implement such as traumatic symptoms and therapeutic inter- ventions. Activities include group projects, guided free play, stimulating discussions, creative writing, dramatic enactment of stories and metaphors, music, and bibliotherapy. The chapter concludes with Structured Sensory Intervention for Traumatized Children, Adolescents, and Parents (SITCAP). Chapter 9, “Sample Policies to Prevent Legal Liabilities and to Use for Assessments and as Screening Instruments,” addresses ethical policies and liabilities pertaining to school counselors, teachers, administrators, and all those who professionally interact with the school.