CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 1 Creativity through the eyes Arousal and the prediction of creative task performance by Locus Coeruleus-norepinephrine modes. Matthijs Dekker U1262091 / 991987 Master thesis Communication- and Information Sciences Corporate communication and digital media Faculty Humanities Tilburg University Supervisor: dr. K.A. de Rooij Second reader: H.K. Schraffenberger BEng MsC January, 2017 CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 2 Abstract In order to develop creative ideas, which are original as well as effective, several cognitive processes are required involving divergent and convergent thinking. Previous research suggested that creative task performance is influenced the release of noradrenaline, causing arousal, in the Locus Coeruleus-norepinephrine system (LC-NE). This LC-NE system mediates the changes between exploitation and exploratory control states. Previous studies suggested that activity in the LC-NE system is indicated by pupil diameter. Tonic pupil sizes are associated with an exploratory control state, whereas phasic pupil are associated with an exploitative control state. This study measured the pupil diameter of participants while they performed a creative task. Different phases in the experiment are characterized by divergent and convergent thinking. It is examined whether tonic and phasic pupil sizes can predict the creativity of generated ideas during divergent and convergent thinking. It was found that (i) phasic pupil sizes are linear and quadratic predictors of effectiveness during divergent thinking; (ii) tonic pupil sizes are linear predictors of originality during divergent thinking. These findings suggest that creativity can be predicted during divergent thinking in a creative process. CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 3 Creativity through the eyes Creativity among individuals and cultures can lead to happier, fuller and healthier lives (Richards, 2010). It benefits the adaption to an unpredictable future, and supports shaping this future to be beneficial. For example, creativity is highly important in today’s world with constant changes and hypercompetitive markets (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2010; Harvey & Novicevic, 2002). Creative task performance strengthens innovative performance, problem solving capabilities and is required to avoid failure (Kotler, Armstrong, Saunders, & Wong, 2014; Proctor, 1991; Damle, 2015). Currently there is a limited understanding of the factors that enable creative thought. Therefore, this study aims to provide an understanding about factors that predict creative task performance during the creative process. In order to be creative, both originality and effectiveness are required. Namely, something which is original can be useless if it is not effective (Runco & Jaeger, 2012; Stein, 1953). Creative task performance, the degree to which individuals develop ideas that are both original and effective, involves cognitive processes interacting in a dynamic fashion (Isaksen, Dorval, & Treffinger, 2011; Mumford, Madeiros, & Partlow, 2012). These processes involve variation in divergent and convergent thinking, organized in the creative problem solving framework by Isaksen et al. (2011) and Mumford et al. (2012). Divergent thinking generates ideas by combining disparate forms of information in new ways, while convergent thinking generates one single solution to a problem (Addis, Pan, Musicaro, & Schacter, 2016). Divergent thinking leads to original ideas, but in order to become effective, convergent thinking is necessary to analyze and evaluate these original ideas (Baas & van der Maas, 2015). Creative task performance during divergent and convergent thinking is influenced by arousal. Arousal can be defined as vigilance and alertness while being awake (Carter, de Lecea, & Adamantidis, 2013). An inverted U-shape relationship between arousal and creative task performance reveals that very low or extremely high levels of arousal prohibit people from efficient creative activities, whereas moderate levels of arousal enhance creativity (Kim, 2006; de Dreu, Baas, & Nijstad, 2008; Seo, Bartunek, & Barrett, 2010). Arousal is caused by the release of noradrenaline and dopamine in the cortical circuitry due to a link between working memory function and the Locus Coeruleus-norepinephrine system (LC-NE) (Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004). During periods of extremely high arousal, attentional selection becomes so restricted that particular cues cannot be processed, while periods of very low arousal lead to drowsiness and inattention (Gilzenrat, Nieuwenhuis, Jepma, & Cohen, 2010). CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 4 Instead, focusing on the LC-NE modes during different control states can identify the multifaceted effects of arousal on creative performance (Gilzenrat et al., 2010). Recent studies found evidence that LC-NE activity mediates changes between exploitation and exploratory control states (Jepma & Nieuwenhuis, 2011; Gilzenrat et al., 2010; Hayes & Petrov, 2016). An exploitation control state is accompanied by enhanced performance and focus on a current task, whereas an exploratory control state enhances engagement on non-task related information. The adaptive gain theory implies that an exploitation state is accompanied by the phasic mode of the LC-NE, whereas an exploratory control state is accompanied by the tonic mode of the LC-NE (Jepma & Nieuwenhuis, 2011; Gilzenrat et al., 2010; Hayes & Petrov, 2016; Aston-Jones & Cohen, 2005). A tonic LC-NE mode is characterized by an increased baseline pupil diameter and enhanced engagement on non-task related information (i.e. exploration). Conversely, a phasic LC-NE mode is characterized by a decreased baseline pupil diameter and enhanced engagement in the current task (i.e. exploitation). Despite these findings, no studies examined whether creative performance could be predicted based on LC-NE modes via pupil diameters. It could be assumed that phasic and tonic LC-NE modes can provide a new perspective in the role of arousal during creative thought. An exploratory control state, predicted by a tonic LC-NE mode, contributes to divergent thinking by disengaging from the current task and increasing cognitive flexibility (Jepma & Nieuwenhuis, 2008). Evaluating and planning original ideas is a convergent process in which individuals convert several original ideas into one effective plan. An exploitation control state, predicted by a phasic LC-NE mode, contributes to convergent thinking by focusing and increasing performance on the current task. Preliminary research showed that reduced activity in the LC-NE predicted divergent thinking, whereas increased activity in the LC-NE predicted convergent thinking (Heilman, 2016; Heilman, Nadeau, & Beversdorf, 2003). However, to the knowledge of this author no previous studies have shown whether LC- NE modes, monitored by pupil diameters can predict creative task performance. It is assumed that changes in the LC-NE modes predict the creative task performance of an individual. Consequently, the following research question underlines this study: “Do phasic and tonic LC-NE modes predict creative task performance during divergent and convergent phases in the creative process in different ways?” CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 5 This research is deemed scientifically relevant for the following reasons. First, this research seeks to fill the gap of knowledge between the synergy of the LC-NE and creative task performance. To date, there has been research on examining and identifying individuals’ creative task performance (Mumford et al., 2012; Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2004; Baas, Roskes, Sligte, Nijstad, & de Dreu, 2013). It is revealed that LC-NE activity is related to the diameter of an individual’s pupils. None of these studies examined the prediction of tonic and phasic LC-NE modes on divergent and convergent phases in the creative process via pupil diameters. This study aims at providing evidence for the involvement of LC-NE modes on creative task performance as well as introducing an additional measure for creative task performance. Second, this study is conducted within a context of high external validity. As the contribution to society is an important aspect of creativity, this study is based on a realistic corporate issue. Therefore, the practical effectiveness of the solutions is addressed in this study. This research also has societal relevance as creative task performance is highly required in hypercompetitive markets (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2010; Harvey and Novicevic, 2002). Therefore, it is important to understand creativity and how it can be strengthened and assessed. By understanding the link between LC-NE activity and creativity, people can be trained to utilize creative task performance in order to increase competitiveness and become more valuable for organizations. In addition, organizations are already assessing potential candidates on their creative task performance (Oldham & Cummings, 1996). This study aims to assess creativity more effectively and can therefore be useful to organizations in order to find employees who can contribute to the competitiveness, problem solving capabilities and growth (Kotler et al., 2009). This thesis is structured in the following way. The theoretical framework provides an in-depth exploration of the key concepts ‘creativity’, and the ‘creative process’. Furthermore, literature regarding ‘exploration and exploitation control states’ and the relation with ‘phasic and tonic modes’ will be explored and applied. The third chapter explains the method for this research in terms of chosen samples, experimental design, materials and procedure. The fourth chapter will statistically present the results and subsequently the hypotheses will be confirmed or rejected. The fifth chapter concludes the findings and answers the research question. Furthermore, it discusses the theoretical and practical implications of this research and provides suggestions for further research. CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 6 1 Theoretical framework 1.1 Creativity In order to define creativity, a bipartite definition is required. The first part of the definition involves originality referring to the uncommonness and innovativeness of an idea (Baas & van der Maas, 2008). An uncommon and innovative idea can be based on existing knowledge and information, but the final idea should contain new elements compared to a previous idea (Stein, 1953). However, an original idea can be useless, as there is the possibility that nobody ever introduced it because it did not contribute to society. Therefore, a second part is included in the definition. Balkin (1990) stresses that the contribution to society is what differentiates creativity from merely originality. In order to contribute, a creative idea should be practically useful, fit the context and be appropriate (Runco & Jaeger, 2012). Stein (1953) highlights the importance of time and people in terms of society. In today’s world with constant changes and hypercompetitive markets, yesterday’s creative ideas can be ineffective today (Harvey & Novicevic, 2002; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2010). Furthermore, these ideas should be considered useful or satisfying by a group of people and the benefits should outweigh the costs (Balkin, 1990; Rubenson & Runco, 1992; Stein, 1953). This contribution to society is referred to as effectiveness, which leaves the bipartite definition as a combination of originality and effectiveness (Montag, Maertz, & Baer, 2012; Runco & Jaeger, 2012). 1.2 Creative process The creative process is strengthened by a combination of divergent and convergent thinking (Jones & Estes, 2015). Both types of thinking contribute differently to the process of creative thought. Whereas divergent thinking focuses on generating original ideas by combining disparate forms of information in new ways, convergent thinking narrows several original ideas into one optimal creative idea (Addis et al., 2016; Jones & Estes, 2015). This entire process of creative thought contains several phases which are each related to divergent and convergent thinking. The framework showing the several stages within the process of creative problem solving are displayed in Figure 1 (Isaksen et al., 2011, p. 31) created a framework showing the several stages within the process of creative problem solving (Figure 1). CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 7 Figure 1. Creative problem solving framework. Reprinted from Creative approaches to problem solving: A framework for innovation and change (p. 31), by S.G. Isaksen, K.B. Dorval, and D.J. Treffinger, 2011, London, England: SAGE publications. Copyright 2011 by SAGE publications, Inc. This framework is based on three process components and one management component, each consisting of different phases which are related to divergent or convergent thinking (Isaksen et al., 2011). The first component, “understanding the challenge”, involves the preparation and stating of the problem. The phases included in this component are constructing opportunities, exploring data, and framing problems. These phases assist in developing a clear definition of the problem. The second component, “generating ideas”, involves generating many original ideas to solve a problem. Only one phase is included in this component with a similar name. The third component, “preparing for action”, involves the convergence of the many original ideas into an effective and creative idea which can solve the problem. This component consists of the phases developing solutions and building acceptance. Figure 2 gives an overview of the components addressed in this study, belonging to the divergent and convergent phases. The width of the graph shows that the divergent phases lead to a high number of original ideas, whereas the convergent phases lead to a small number of creative ideas. The “planning your approach” component is referred to as a management component which involves keeping track of thinking processes during the creative problem solving process. Furthermore, choices about tools and locations are involved in this component. CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 8 Figure 2. Divergent to convergent thinking The framework by Isaksen et al. (2011) is constructed in a dynamic fashion which allows for cycling back to previous phases in cases of failure and dissatisfaction. For example, when the original ideas generated with divergent thinking prove insufficient to construct a creative idea, more information and knowledge can be gathered. This dynamic process enhances the creativity of ideas by providing a greater range of options (Connelly et al., 2000; Mumford, Baughman, Threlfall, Supinski and Costanza, 1996). The number of times cycling back can differ per individual, as the strength of convergent and divergent thinking differs per person. An individual’s ability to perform a creative task depends the behavior and cognitive skills during the execution of the different phases of the creative process. Cognitive flexibility, extraversion, openness to new experiences and the ability to disengage from a current task predict an individual’s divergent thinking abilities (Baas et al., 2008; de Dreu, Nijstad, Baas, Wolsink, & Roskes, 2012; Kuncel et al., 2004). In contrast, self-confidence, planning, perseverance and the ability to focus on a current task predict an individual’s convergent thinking abilities (Balkin, 1990; de Dreu et al., 2012; Kuncel et al., 2004). Balkin (1990) stresses that the coherence of these skills and characteristics determine the strength of creative task performance. For example, intelligence is necessary in order be creative, however, solely intelligence does not make an individual creative (Karwowski et al., 2016). Creative people are able at making connections were these connections did not exist previously (Balkin, 1990). In short, each phase requires certain cognitive skills and behavior in order to perform effectively. The combination of these phases, associated cognitive skills, and personal characteristics contribute to the emergence of creative ideas. 1.3 Arousal Some of the cognitive skills required in a creative process (e.g. working memory capacity, comprehension, planning) are associated with arousal (de Dreu et al., 2008; Kim, 2006; Seo et CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 9 al., 2010). Arousal is defined as the degree of vigilance and alertness during periods of wakefulness (Carter et al., 2013). Wakefulness is referred to as a conscious state in which individuals can perceive and interact with their environment. The cue utilization hypothesis states that increased levels of arousal lead to enhanced selection and processing task-relevant information. For example, Martindale and Greenough (1973) found a significant relation between high arousal and creative performance, whereas low and medium levels of arousal showed non-significant results. This study was conducted via a Remote Associates Test (RAT) which focuses on convergent thinking abilities. Similar findings were retrieved via an Alternate Uses Task (AUT) which focuses on divergent thinking abilities (Dreu et al., 2008). The effect of arousal on these cognitive processes can be explained by the release of noradrenaline and dopamine in the cortical circuitry, and in particular a connection between the working memory function and the Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine (LC-NE) (Dreisbach & Goschke, 2004). The LC-NE system controls the cognitive processes moderating the level of attention and behavioral performance of an individual on a current task (Sara, 2009). Furthermore, it is the only source of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter modulating arousal, in the cortex (Heilman, 2016; Howells, Stein, & Russell, 2012) Seo et al. (2010) found that increased levels of arousal enhance focus and attention on a current task. This is partially supported by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) who revealed an inverted U-shape relationship concerning arousal and creative task performance (Figure 3). The study by de Dreu et al. (2008) supported this relationship by conducting a brainstorming experiment for product improvement. During this experiment, participants with very low or extremely high arousal performed less creative behavior. These extreme levels of arousal shut down cognitive systems which are required to perform creative behavior. For example, extremely low levels of arousal lead to drowsiness and inattention to a task, which hinders optimal convergent thinking. Extremely high levels of arousal lead to highly restricted attentional selection and a rigidity of focus, which hinders optimal divergent thinking (Gilzenrat et al., 2010). Participants with a moderate level of arousal performed the most enhanced levels of creative behavior due to an active working memory capacity and functioning of the LC-NE (de Dreu et al., 2008). Focusing solely on low, intermediate, and high levels of arousal in the LC-NE could restrict the multifaceted effect of arousal in the creative process. The cue utilization hypothesis states that increased levels of arousal enhance convergent thinking by restricting selection impact performance by restricting selection of extant information. However, this restricted selection could hinder divergent thinking. Therefore, in order to investigate the CREATIVITY THROUGH THE EYES 10 multifaceted effect of arousal, this study focuses on different LC-NE modes and their effect on exploratory and exploitative states of mind. Figure 3. Inverted U-curve of arousal 1.4 Exploration and exploitation The previously described creative problem solving framework comprises of both divergent and convergent thinking, in which extant knowledge and information are first explored and subsequently exploited to generate creative ideas (Isaksen et al., 2011). The divergent thinking phases are associated with an exploratory state of mind, involving certain characteristics described in section 2.2. Subsequent convergent thinking phases are associated with an exploitative state of mind, involving the characteristics described in section 2.2. The interaction between these states of mind contribute to the production of creative ideas. The interaction between the states of mind affect the creative task performance of an individual. The ambidexterity hypothesis states that an individuals’ ability to switch appropriately between exploration and exploitation, determines the effectiveness of cognitive processes which enhance creative task performance (Gupta, Smith, & Shalley, 2006; Laureiro-Martínez et al., 2015). Research by Laureiro-Martínez et al. (2015) showed that the LC-NE is more activated during exploring compared to exploiting. This was measured by conducting a four-armed bandit test in which participants chose between slot machines to receive the highest pay-out. Participants explored different slot machines or exploited only one. Whereas the total number of exploratory- and exploitative choices did not predict the most advanced decision-making performance, the switching from between the states of mind did. Especially switching from exploration to exploitation predicted the most effective