CREATIVE PROCESSES IN AKAN MUSICAL CULTURES: INNOVATION WITHIN TRADITION by Eric Odame Beeko Dip. Mus., National Academy of Music, Winneba, Ghana, 1984 Post-Dip. Mus. Edu., University College of Education, Winneba, Ghana, 1988 B.Ed. Mus., University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 1996 M.Phil. Mus., University of Ghana, Legon, 2000 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2005 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Eric Odame Beeko It was defended on April 19, 2005 and approved by Dr. Mary Lewis Dr. Nathan Davis Dr. V. Kofi Agawu Dr. Joseph Adjaye Dr. Akin O. Euba Dissertation Director ii This work is copyright, and no part of it may be reproduced by any process, manually or electronically, without the written permission of the author. Copyright 2005 by Eric Odame Beeko iii CREATIVE PROCESSES IN AKAN MUSIC: INNOVATIONS WITHIN TRADITION Eric Odame Beeko, Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 2005 The aim of this dissertation is to explain the creative processes in composition and performance of traditional music, and the subsequent innovations that emerge out of these processes in the musical traditions of the Akan people of Ghana. The study is premised on the fact that traditional musicians in the Akan culture, like most people on the surface of the earth, also have the natural capacity to consciously or unconsciously effect changes in their environments, play significant roles in most human-initiated change processes, and make contributions to both the material and institutional aspects of their culture, as their creative sensibilities or tendencies continue to bring about various forms of innovations from time to time. Based on this fact, the present study is oriented more toward the creative activities of individual composer-performers in the Akan society who are believed to be making profound contributions through their creative activities, consciously or unconsciously and directly or indirectly, to sustain the entire music traditions of Akan. Akan traditional music is transmitted orally and musicians literally compose the music either before or during performance; the music that they produce is either entirely new or a partial re- composition of pre-existing music. Accordingly, the study investigates the processes by which new ideas are generated and added to existing ones. It examines how Akan traditional musicians, working within the constraints imposed by the artistic parameters of the culture, consciously and subconsciously generate new ideas as they reproduce, reconstruct, reorder, and reinterpret the existing musical elements through their creative processes, and as a result bring about innovation iv in the tradition. These innovations are a necessary factor for sustaining the tradition, and for making it relevant to every period. Although the primary focus of this study is the Akan culture, it, however, highlights several issues—relating to creativity, change and innovation—that may also concern many cultures of Africa. Therefore, by using the Akan culture as a premise, what the study also seeks to establish is that an approach to the study of social change in relation to African art in general cannot focus on institutions without taking into account the human creative activities. The human creative tendencies that reveal both the innate capacity (the personality) and the culturally acquired knowledge are of primary relevance in understanding both change and continuity, particularly in Africa, and generally in any oral tradition. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE......................................................................................................................................xi 1. CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY.........................................................1 1.1. Aims and Objective.........................................................................................................1 1.2. Geographical Scope of Study..........................................................................................3 1.3. Defining the Research Problem......................................................................................8 1.3.1. The Change-Continuity Issue with Respect to Creativity.....................................10 1.3.2. The Nature-Nurture Issue with Respect to Creativity...........................................13 1.3.3. Summary of the Research Problem.......................................................................15 1.4. State of Research on Compositional Processes............................................................17 1.5. Theoretical Framework.................................................................................................21 1.6. Research Methodology.................................................................................................24 1.6.1. Data Collection.....................................................................................................24 1.6.1.1. Fieldwork......................................................................................................24 1.6.1.2. Library and Archival Studies........................................................................28 1.6.2. Data Transliteration and Transcription.................................................................30 1.6.3. Data Analysis and Interpretation..........................................................................31 1.6.3.1. Analysis of Verbal Interview.........................................................................31 1.6.3.2. Analysis of Music..........................................................................................32 1.6.3.3. Interpretation of Sources..............................................................................32 2. CHAPTER TWO: THE SOCIO-CULTURAL DYNAMICS OF THE AKAN TRADITIONS...............................................................................................................................35 2.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................35 2.2. Ethnological Account of the Akan................................................................................36 2.2.1. Akan Linguistic Structure.....................................................................................36 2.2.1.1. The Akan and the Kwa Family......................................................................36 2.2.1.2. The Akan Language Groups.........................................................................37 2.2.2. Akan Family Structure..........................................................................................39 2.2.3. Akan Philosophical Thought.................................................................................41 2.3. Akan Socio-Cultural Processes.....................................................................................45 2.3.1. Processes of Change and Transformation.............................................................46 2.3.2. Processes of Appropriation and Reinterpretation.................................................48 2.4. Akan Socio-Cultural Systems.......................................................................................50 2.5. Conclusion....................................................................................................................52 3. CHAPTER THREE: THE DYNAMICS OF THE AKAN MUSIC TRADITIONS............55 3.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................55 3.2. Processes of Creativity: Development and Transformation of the Music Traditions...56 3.2.1. The Institution of the Music Traditions................................................................56 3.2.1.1. The Social Interactions.................................................................................57 3.2.1.2. The Socio-Musical Events.............................................................................58 3.2.2. The Emergence of Music Groups and Associations.............................................61 3.2.2.1. Emergence of Unofficial Music Groups.......................................................62 3.2.2.2. Formation of Official Music Groups............................................................62 3.2.3. The Emergence of Musical Types........................................................................63 vi 3.2.3.1. The Creation and Development of the Musical Types..................................64 3.3. Products of Creativity: Structures in the Music Traditions..........................................70 3.3.1. Musical Groups.....................................................................................................70 3.3.1.1. Category “A” Groups...................................................................................70 3.3.1.2. Category “B” Groups...................................................................................74 3.3.1.3. Category “C” Groups ..................................................................................78 3.3.2. Artistic Forms.......................................................................................................85 3.3.2.1. Narrative and Symbolic Forms.....................................................................85 3.3.2.2. Narrative-Symbolic Forms Used in their Social Context.............................91 3.3.2.3. Musical Genres.............................................................................................95 3.4. Conclusion..................................................................................................................101 4. CHAPTER FOUR: THE AKAN CONCEPTS OF MUSICAL CREATIVITY.................103 4.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................103 4.2. Akan Musical Creativity: A Conceptual Framework.................................................104 4.2.1. The Creative Person in Music.............................................................................105 4.2.2. The Creative Ability in Music............................................................................109 4.2.2.1. Source of the Creative Ability.....................................................................109 4.2.2.2. Characteristics of the Creative Ability.......................................................112 4.2.3. The Creative Process in Music...........................................................................113 4.2.3.1. The Transcendental Level of the Creative Behavior...................................114 4.2.3.2. The Performative Level of the Creative Behavior......................................117 4.2.4. The Creative Parameters in Music......................................................................123 4.3. Akan Musical Creativity: A Theoretical Consideration.............................................125 4.3.1. Nature-Nurture Interaction in Musical Creativity...............................................126 4.3.2. The Cycle of Musical Creation...........................................................................129 4.4. Conclusion..................................................................................................................133 5. CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNIQUES OF AKAN COMPOSITION......................................135 5.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................135 5.2. The Ideational Creative Techniques...........................................................................136 5.2.1. Creative Scenarios in Compositional Process.....................................................137 5.2.1.1. Odie Yaw Bour’s “Yaa, Meeyε Bi Akō”.....................................................138 5.2.1.2. Attaa Agyeiwaa’s “Ghana Adehyeε Mma”................................................141 5.2.1.3. Yaa Afrakoma’s “Ōda Mpadua Mu”..........................................................144 5.2.2. Generative Principles..........................................................................................149 5.2.2.1. Text-Tune Relationship...............................................................................150 5.2.2.2. Text-Tune Construction..............................................................................155 5.2.3. Organizational Principles....................................................................................159 5.3. The Psychomotor Creative Techniques......................................................................165 5.4. Conclusion..................................................................................................................168 6. CHAPTER SIX: THE AKAN MUSIC TRADITIONS IN THE CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT..................................................................................................................................170 6.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................170 6.2. The Contemporary Scene............................................................................................171 6.2.1. Historical Setting................................................................................................171 6.2.2. Changes and Innovations....................................................................................172 6.2.2.1. Musical Organization and Admnistration..................................................172 vii 6.2.2.2. New Centers for Traditional Music Performance......................................174 6.2.2.3. Music Production and Promotion...............................................................175 6.3. Summary and Conclusion...........................................................................................184 6.3.1. Summary.............................................................................................................184 6.3.2. Conclusion..........................................................................................................186 APPENDIX A.............................................................................................................................190 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................196 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Africa, showing the country Ghana in West Africa (From Nketia 1974, p. vi). 5 Figure 2: Map of Ghana showing Regions and Towns...................................................................6 Figure 3: Map of Ghana showing the Akan Groups.......................................................................7 Figure 4: Koo Nimo, accompanying himself on the guitar at his residence at Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. (Picture was taken on November 23, 2003)...............................72 Figure 5: Ama Oforiwa of Odumasi performing with her children at Odumasi in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. (Picture was taken on November 11, 2003)................................73 Figure 6: Kontonkyi Nnwonkoro group, performing at one of the member’s residence at Asante Mampong in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. (Picture was taken on November 29, 2003)....74 Figure 7: “Su Wo Wuda” group, performing at the chief’s palace at Aburi in the Eastern Region of Ghana. From left to right in the first row is a woman playing the akasae, and three men playing the tamalin, apentema and donno, respectively. (Picture was taken on January 11, 2004).....................................................................................................................................76 Figure 8: “Owu Mpε Sika” group performing at the residence of the leader, Okyeame Ofosu, who is seen standing, at Abrew in the Eastern Region of Ghana. On the front row, and from left to right, are the accompanists with the apentema, tamalin and petia drums, respectively. (Picture was taken on January 13, 2004)..............................................................................77 Figure 9: The Bentsil Adzewa, performing at a beach in Cape Coast in the Central Region of Ghana. On the first row, a man is seen playing a drum with two women (first and fifth from the left) carrying rattles. (Picture taken on January 24, 2004)..............................................78 Figure 10: Sewurada group, marching through the town from one end to the other—that is, the bride’s house—where the marriage ceremony is supposed to take place. The picture shows the women carrying drinks, clothes and money meant for the bride’s family, and being followed with singing, drumming and dancing. (Picture taken on January 19, 2004).........80 Figure 11: The Sewurada group, performing in an open-air arena at Shama in the Western Region of Ghana. The woman in front is dancing; the young man and the boy are playing the drum and a bell, respectively, while the women behind them sing. In front of the group are the drinks and the clothes................................................................................................81 Figure 12: A small section of the Awlεbεndōm Group, performing in the open air in the night at Abora in the Western Region of Ghana. (Picture was taken on January 21, 2004)..............82 Figure 13: The accompanists of the Awlεbεndōm Group, accompanying with the bamboo sticks. The sizes of the bamboo sticks range from small ones of about 12 inches (as seen with the boy sitting in front) to the big ones of about 4 feet (as seen with the boy standing in the extreme left). The small ones are cut in two halves and played in pairs, while the medium- and the big-sized ones are hit vertically against big stones to accentuate main beats. There are holes in the big bamboo sticks, which help the players in producing two or three pitches. The donno (hourglass drum) seen was not originally part of the ensemble, but only brought in on that day just for experiment.........................................................................................83 Figure 14: The Tanokrom Agorōmma, performing one of the adowa dances at the Center for National Culture in Sunyani in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. The adowa instruments are, from left to right, a pair of atumpan drums (master drums), petia, and apentema. The ix other instrument on the right is occasionally brought in. (Picture taken on November 11, 2003).....................................................................................................................................84 Figure 15: Two dancers of the Tanokrom Agorōmma, dancing the adowa dance. Note the performance arrangement: dancers in front, drummers sit behind them with singers standing behind the drummers.............................................................................................................85 Figure 16: The Aural Dimension of the Music-Making...............................................................88 Figure 17: The Visual Dimension of the Music-Making..............................................................89 Figure 18: The Four-Quadrant Conceptualization of the Akan Music-Making—Agorō.............90 Figure 19: A Chain of the Four Creative Events........................................................................130 Figure 20: A Cycle of Musical Creation.....................................................................................132 Figure 21: Central Folkloric Group of the Center for National Culture (CNC) in one of their performances in Cape Coast in the Central Region of Ghana (Picture taken on January 23, 2004)...................................................................................................................................178 Figure 22: Central Folkloric Group, performing the asafo dance of the Akan. This section shows the vigorous male dance movements. The men always dance with a flag in the hand.......179 Figure 23: Central Folkloric Group, performing the asafo dance. This section shows the female dance movements and gestures. They dance with scarfs in the hand.................................180 Figure 24: Central Folkloric Group, performing the asafo war dance.......................................180 Figure 25: Central Folkloric Group, performing the osoode social dance.................................181 Figure 26: Central Folkloric Group, performing the osoode dance............................................182 Figure 27: Central Folkloric Group, performing the apatampa social dance.............................182 Figure 28: Central Folkloric Group, performing the apatampa dance.......................................183 Figure 29: Cenral Folkloric Group, performing the apatampa dance........................................184 x